The ENTIRE History of Human Civilizations | Ancient to Modern (4K Documentary) [Full Movie]

Name: The ENTIRE History of Human Civilizations | Ancient to Modern (4K Documentary) [Full Movie]
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Transcript

The history of our story began long

ago. At one point in time around 3

billion years ago, we were floating

around as little tiny atoms in the

little petri dish of the world. Fast

forward to around 6 million years ago,

and we see the emergence of the first

hominids, the family of primates that

include humans. 1.9 million years ago,

Homo erectus was the first species to

leave Africa and colonize other parts of

the world. They had larger brains than

their primate

ancestors. Around 400,000 years ago, the

first evidence of the Neanderthalss.

Their bodies were adapted to the cold

environments of Europe and Western Asia.

Their distinctive facial features were

some of the most humanlike ever seen.

Then came us, the only surviving species

of the homogeneous. But how did homo

sapiens rise into a global dominance?

Through the mechanism of

[Music]

civilization. We begin our story in the

fertile lands of Mesopotamia in 4,000

B.CE. Nestled between the great Tigris

and Euphrates rivers and the Sumerian

city of Uric. Instead of relying on

hunting and gathering like our ancestors

of the past, the citizens of Uric were

able to develop a way to harvest cereal

grains like wheat and barley. However,

turning cereal grains into edible foods

took a lot of work. In the beginning,

they had to use an invention called a

handmill which consisted of two stones.

As the grains were crushed between the

two stones, the flour was collected in a

container and stored for future use.

This was the start of something great.

This complex, strenuous process was our

modern world's first example of

agriculture. We no longer depended on

hunting animals or picking berries for

our food. Rather than using human

ingenuity, we can create our own food

source. This allowed Eric to prosper

into a place with over 50,000 residents.

However, this change did have a change

on the human body. The average height of

men drastically shrunk from 5'9 to 5'3.

And for women, they shrunk on average

from 5'3 to 5 ft. Instead of being the

super athletes we were of the past, we

were smaller, less noticeable farmers.

People also became landlocked, changing

the very essence of what it means to be

human. In the early 3000 B.CE. According

to legend, King Gilgamesh began his rule

as a Sumerian king of his region.

However, by the end of 3000 B.CE, the

Acadians ousted the Sumerianss. Sargon

the Great took power and conquered all

of Sumeriia.

While in the Indis Valley in modern-day

Pakistan, a new civilization was

growing. The Indis Valley civilization

3,300 to,300 B.CEE was most notable for

its highly advanced toilet system. The

toilets were built with a seat and a

chute that led to the underground

drainage system. The sewage was then

carried away from the homes through a

network of covered drains, preventing

disease spread. The waste was treated

and disposed outside of city limits,

helping to keep the cities clean and

hygienic. While in Egypt, they were more

consumed with building pyramids than

basic human plumbing. This was because

in ancient Egyptian religion, it was

believed that when a pharaoh was to die

in the physical world, his spirit would

continue to live on in the afterlife in

which they would continue to rule in

perpetuity and where they would be

worshiped by the living. Inside these

pyramids, the pharaoh's body was

carefully mummified, a process believed

to preserve his physical form and help

ensure his spirit's journey to the

afterlife. The pyramid was also filled

with offerings and treasures intended to

provide the pharaoh with the resources

he would need in the afterlife. Every

pharaoh wanted to make sure they were

immortal. They wanted to succeed in the

afterlife. They wanted to be worshiped

forever. That's why it was an utmost

priority for Egyptian pharaohs to build

pyramids for themselves when laid to

rest. It started when Pharaoh Joser 2667

to 2648 B.CE TE built the step pyramid

at Sakara followed by Nefpharu 2613 to

2589 B.CEE who built several pyramids

such as the bent pyramid and the red

pyramid. Then came the pharaoh Kufu 2589

to 2566 B.CE who built the famous Great

Pyramid of Giza in a laborintensive

20-year process, one that the world

still marvels at today. Kufu was then

followed by Pharaoh's Kafre and Menar

who built the slightly smaller second

and third pyramids of Giza

respectively. While over in China in the

year 2100 B.CEE the first Chinese

dynasty was upon us. Like the people of

Mesopotamia, the Chinese were ever

reliant on agriculture, producing rice,

wheat, and barley among other crops.

However, as legend has it, the Yellow

River flooded. These massive floods

would destroy all the crops, leading to

massive famine and suffering. However,

not all was to be lost because Yu, the

great was on his way. Yu was so

distraught by this problem that he would

spend his days traveling up and down the

Yellow River. He found ways to divert

the rivers by building levies and dikes

so that he could regulate the waterways.

Then after 13 years of hard work, the

floods could no longer wreak havoc on

the land. The people were overjoyed and

Yu was hailed as a savior. That was the

start of the first Chinese dynasty, the

Ja dynasty. Though the accuracy of this

tale is questioned by historians, it

does establish an important precedent.

The idea is that power ought to follow

one's merit. An individual who deserves

absolute power shall have absolute

power. This idea would shape the world

for years to come and cause the people

of ancient China to follow him to create

the first ever Chinese

[Music]

dynasty. While back over in Mesopotamia

around 1772 B.CE, E, a Babylonian king

named King Hammurabi created the basis

of the legal system as we know it today.

Hammurabi ordered the creation of a 7-ft

tall, 2- foot wide stone slab. Written

on it was a system of 282 laws that each

citizen of his kingdom was to follow.

Such laws included various laws such as

law one, if a man brings an accusation

against another man charging him with

murder but cannot prove it, the accuser

shall be put to death. Law 196, if a man

destroys the eye of another man, they

shall destroy his eye. Law 197 says, if

he breaks another man's bone, they shall

break it. Law 199. If he destroys the

eye of a man's slave or breaks the bone

of a man's slave, he shall pay 1/ half

his price. However, what King Hammurabi

did was create a society based on laws.

He laid out strict laws, placing people

into certain casts of life and value.

Everyone was worth a different amount

based on what class they were in

society. There was no illusion of

equality in ancient Babylon. Instead, it

was pretty clear the value of a noble's

bone was worth more than a plebeians,

which in turn was worth more than a

slaves, an idea we continue to see

throughout

history. While in modern-day Turkey, a

lesserknown civilization came to power,

the Hittites Empire under the

charismatic rule of the leader Learnis,

1680 to 1650 B.CE. CE. He was a skilled

ruler with a single vision in mind,

uniting the Hittite citystates under a

single rule. The Barnes led his army

from city to city, conquering

neighboring citystates and making

alliances with their leaders. He was a

shrewd diplomat and he used his

diplomatic skills to win over the hearts

and minds of the people. Eventually,

Learnas became the ruler of all the

Hittite citystates and established the

empire. He was a just and fair ruler and

was loved by his people. Under his rule,

the Hittites prospered and their

territory expanded, leaving them right

next to their neighbors in

Egypt. While in modern-day Greece, a

collection of citystates emerged on the

European continent. Mason Greece 1600

B.CE to 1100 B.CE De was dominated by an

elite warrior society and consisted of a

network of palace centered states that

developed rigid hierarchial political,

social, and economic systems. At the

head of this society was the king.

However, unlike a unified civilization,

each city was on its own. A city-state

is a city that with its surrounding

territory forms an independent state.

The development of citystates such as

Troy, Mysini, and Pilus start to grow.

The first remnants of the Greek written

language known as linear B also started

to emerge. The first record of any

Indo-Uropean Greek record we have today.

[Music]

While back in Egypt, they started to

create a social pyramid of another type,

the Egyptian social pyramid. Like the

Great Pyramid of Giza, it is more

prominent at the bottom and tinier at

the top. At the bottom lays the peasants

and the slaves. They were responsible

for doing all the manual labor. They

worked on the lands. They would spend

the day in and day out farming,

producing food for all of Egypt. Then

when the season to farm was over for the

year, they would work on the pharaoh's

massive building projects. Literally

building the

pyramids. Slightly above the slaves came

the artisans. They were the stonemasons,

the plasters, and the sculptors who

created the exuberant art the wealthy

desired and for Egypt is most known for

today. Then came the merchants who spent

their days navigating the Nile, trading

gold, papyrus, and linen to anyone who

could afford it. They were well

respected and able to make a healthy

profit by selling. Then came the

scribes. These masters of the world

would go to specialized scribe schools

just to master the language of ancient

Egyptian hieroglyphics. In practical

use, these scribes took account of the

stores of food, various tax documents,

and even the daily lives of the pharaoh.

After the scribes came the soldiers, the

soldiers were tasked with protecting the

Egyptian Empire. They dedicated their

lives to defend or make preemptive

strikes against their enemy. Generally,

they were wellfed. Then, near the top

came the bureaucrats. These highranking

government officials did essential tasks

at the top of society like the vazers

who ran the logistical tasks necessary

to run a civilization. The priests

oversaw taking care of the temples to

ensure the gods were well cared for. The

nobles oversaw specific regions of the

empire and kept order in said regions.

At the top, the purpose of everyone

below was the pharaoh, the king and the

mediator between the gods and the world

of men. The pharaohs will be known to be

supreme and all must succumb to it. When

the pharaoh dies, he will be buried in a

pyramid in which he will help eternally

rule over the Egyptian Empire. Egyptian

society was created to serve the

pharaoh. Taxes were taken from the

farmers for the pharaoh and artisans

made unique crafts for it. The merchants

ensured the pharaoh was well supplied

with the needed goods. The scribes would

follow the pharaoh and record his

thoughts. The soldiers made sure his

empire was protected. The bureaucrats

did the jobs the pharaoh couldn't do

while the pharaoh sat at the top and

communicated with the gods. Pharaoh

Ramsy's II 1279 to 1213 B.CE. CE

accomplished many extraordinary things

by living in this social system. He

orchestrated the construction of the

temple of Abu Symbol, the Ramisum and

the temple of Cararnac. He was also able

to grow the Egyptian Empire and

reconquer lands lost by other pharaohs

except for the land claimed by the

Hidife Empire.

[Music]

The Hittite king of the time, Matali II,

1295 to 1272 B.CEE, was notorious for

ordering his troops to attack his

Egyptian neighbors. Following the

example of Learnis, Matali wanted to

unify the world under Hittite rule.

However, Ramsy's had enough. Other

pharaohs in the past have tried to stop

the Hittites, but he knew if his empire

was to ever succeed, he needed to attack

back. His target is the city of Kadesh.

Ramsy's rode in on his chariot with four

divisions of 20,000 men ready to

dominate and kill Matali. However, the

Hittites already knew of the incoming

Egyptian invasion through espionage.

They fortified their city with 40,000 of

his own men. A war was about to

commence. Ramsy's decided to split up

his divisions to force Matali out, but

yet Matali never did. A gruesome

mistake. Splitting up his forces left

him exposed, unable to get an advantage,

allowing Matali and the people of Kadesh

a chance for victory. Historians believe

that all they did was come out from the

fortification of Kadesh and trap Ramsy's

II's forces in his army by the river.

But yet, for some unknown reason, they

never did, leaving the Battle of Kadesh

to end in a draw. After the battle

though, both sides decided it would be

best to stop attacking each other, that

they should live in peace and unity in

this world. Then after the death of

Matali, the new king Harusili III took

the throne of the Hittite Empire.

Through the means of messengers in the

year 1258 B.CEE, both Ramses and

Harusili signed the first peace treaty

to ever exist. Reading in part, Ramsy's

the great king, the king of the country

of Egypt, shall never attack the country

of Hadti to take possession of a part of

this country. and Haruseli the great

king of the country of Hadi shall never

attack the country of Egypt to take

possession of a part of that country.

Then a period of friendship occurred

between these two once waring nations.

The Hittites were skilled in metal work

and taught the Egyptians to make

superior weapons and tools. At the same

time, the Egyptians, master of

agriculture, shared their knowledge with

the Hittites. Trade for the benefit of

both civilizations. Both civilizations

prospered because of this. Peace can

lead to prosperity. The agreement was

kept in place until around 1,200 B.CE de

because that's when the Hittite Empire

fell because of the constant attacks

they faced from the sea people leaving

the Hittite Empire to be lost in the

state of

[Music]

history. While on a continent far away,

the first civilization in the Americas

was taking foot in modern-day Mexico.

Theme civilization 1200 B.CE to 400 B.CE

CE is often considered the mother

civilization of Native American

civilizations. However, sadly though,

not much is known about them, mainly due

to their writing in a hieroglyph

historians still can't decipher. One of

the few remains we have are these 17

colossal stone heads. In Mesoamerican

culture, there is this belief that the

head alone could contain an individual's

emotion, experience, and soul. We may

not know their leaders names like of

other civilizations like Ramsy's and

Hammurabi. When looking through the eyes

of a stone head, we can still feel their

presence. And in some ways, they remain

immortal, enshrined in history. For one

day, we may learn who they

[Music]

are. While in the east, the Zhao dynasty

1046 to 256 B.CE CE in China was taking

its stride. The Zhao dynasty gained

power because of the failures of the

less critical Shang dynasty. They

believed in the idea of a mandate from

heaven. This resulted in four principles

in the Chinese dynastical structure that

would be repeated repeatedly. One,

heaven grants the emperor the right to

rule. Two, since there is only one

heaven, there can only be one emperor at

any given time. Three, the emperor's

virtue determines his right to rule. And

four, no one dynasty has a permanent

right to rule. A ruler in dynasty could

lose the mandate from heaven. And the

heavens weren't always on the side of

the rulers. Over time, it will fade into

another dynasty. The heavens would send

signs of droughts, famines, floods, and

earthquakes across the land, signaling

they'd lost the blessing from above.

This is how the Shen dynasty fell and

the Zhao dynasty grew to prominence. The

Zhao dynasty brought another style of

government and the creation of

feudalism. The system was

straightforward leading to another

social pyramid. At the bottom lay the

peasants who were tied to the land and

whose job was to produce crops for the

empire. Then came the soldiers whose job

was to protect the lands from foreign

invaders. Then the lords who owned the

land and taxed the peasants a portion of

their crops who in turn the lord gave

some of their crops to the king. The

person in charge of the whole empire,

the king would then receive more crops

and become very wealthy. All profits go

to the king and all work goes to the

masses. Why would anyone just settle for

a life of farming day in and day out?

There are two reasons for this

phenomenon. The first reason was due to

necessity. It took many more people to

feed an empire and a family back then.

And the second reason being philosophy

towards the end of the Zhao dynasty, the

beginning of Eastern philosophy was

created. Confucious created a philosophy

system justly named Confucianism which

is focused on the importance of respect,

loyalty and responsibility in all

relationships in life. A central concept

of Confucianism is called Lee which can

be translated as rituals, customs or

manners. Lee refers to the formal and

informal social conventions that guide

societal behavior. It is seen as

maintaining order and harmony in social

relationships. While LaZee created

another philosophy called Towoism. The

word toao means the way or the path. And

toism teaches that individuals should

seek to align themselves with the

natural flow of the universe rather than

fighting against it. Live your life as

peacefully with yourself as possible and

don't worry about external things

outside your control. Just focus on your

farming. One of the most famous

contemporaries from Taoism is the idea

of yin and yang representing

complimentary and interdependent forces

in nature such as light and dark, hot

and cold or masculine and feminine.

Towoism teaches that by balancing these

opposing forces, individuals can achieve

harmony and fulfillment. Confucianism

and Taoism made life bearable for

ancient Chinese farmers.

[Music]

But as time progressed, the citystates

that occupied ancient Greece grew.

Around 800 B.CEE, the Greek city started

to realize that the land they occupied

was practically infertile. So to produce

an essential staple of grain, they had

to import it. Hence why the Greek states

had to colonize the world around them.

The citystate mletus at its height had

over 90 colonies throughout Europe

producing food for the Greeks. At its

height, the Greek had set up colonies

from modern-day Marseilles in France to

Rostavandon in

[Music]

Russia. One of these new emerging city

states was Rome. As legend has it,

Romulus and Ramis were twin brothers

abandoned by their parents and placed

into the river Tibet. As the basket

floated across the river, a female wolf

discovered the two orphans and nursed

them back to health. When Romulus and

Ramos became adults, they decided to

find a city where the wolf rescued them.

However, this created turmoil as both

brothers wanted the site to be named

after themselves. As Romulus and Ramos

fought relentlessly, eventually Romulus

came up with the final blow and killed

Ramos, creating Rome in 753 BC.

[Music]

While the Greek citystates might have

been colonizing, Cyrus the Great was

about to take over an empire. At the

time, the Persians were subjugated to

the rule of the Mes Empire. According to

legend, after his grandson Cyrus was

born, King Aages of Mes had a vivid

dream that his little grandson would one

day stage a revolt against him. King

Astages knew what to do and ordered his

chief adviser to kill the baby. But the

chief adviser gave the baby off to a

shepherd to be raised instead. However,

troubles weren't over for Cyrus. When he

was 10, King Aages found Cyrus. King

Aages wanted to kill him because the

dream was very clear. This man will

revolt against you. Yet against his

better senses, Cyrus was allowed to

live. King Astage's biggest mistake.

When Cyrus was a man, he gathered his

army and revolted against his maternal

grandfather, the two. But as prophecy

had it, Aiges surrendered in 550 B.CE.

However, Cyrus wasn't done conquering.

He conquered Babylon and became the

supreme ruler of Mesopotamia and even

the Indis Valley civilization. The world

was in Cyrus's hand. Cyrus then took

over the Greek colony of Ionia in Asia

Minor, leading a great Persian Empire.

And then he died, leaving it all in the

air for the next great Persian king,

Darius the

[Music]

Great. While back in Greece, various

citystates started to gain power, but

two were at the forefront, Sparta and

Athens. Sparta was a military

powerhouse. The famous Spartans believed

everything should focus on physical

strength and war. When a new young

Spartan was born, it would be

slaughtered if it didn't look healthy.

Boys were taken from their families at a

young age and were trained to become

soldiers. The brutal training included

physical conditioning, weapons training,

and harsh living conditions. The entire

life of a Spartan was to win a war.

Their society reflected with three main

groups. The ruling class consisted of

aristocrats who held political power.

The free non-citizens who were not

allowed to participate in government but

were still expected to serve in the

military and the hellets, a group of

enslaved people that provided labor for

the Spartan state. Life in Sparta was

harsh, brutal, and militaristic.

While their neighbors up north were

experimenting with this idea of

democracy, Athenian democracy was a

highly complicated mess. There were two

branches, the Council of 500 and the

Assembly. The Council of 500 was

selected randomly by a process known as

sort. Athens itself was made up of 10

different tribes. Each tribe was

responsible for providing 50 citizens to

serve for one year in the Council of 500

via random selection. Each eligible

citizen would be given a personalized

token. Those tokens were inserted into a

particular machine called a clarition.

This long lost technology included tubes

and balls which somehow selected 50

residents of each tribe to join the

illustrious Council of 500. While in the

assembly, there was a system in place

that said that every single citizen had

a vote. Of course, to be a citizen, you

had to be a male and not a slave. and

either born in Athens or to Athenian

parents. The Council of 500 would create

the agenda for the main assembly to vote

on because over 30,000 people could have

a vote at any given time. It was total

chaos. So to quell this, the council

would nominate nine presidents the

morning of the meeting, and it was their

job to ensure all the rules and

procedures were being followed. Since

they were appointed right before the

assembly met, they were almost

impossible to bribe. Somehow the

assembly would loudly vote on whether a

bill would pass. They would vote on

matters like appointing generals,

various laws, and other government

bureaucracy. However, not everyone liked

this Athenian democracy. The famous

Greek philosopher Plato thought the idea

was barbaric. In book six of the seminal

book, The Republic, Plato writes, "The

true navigator must study the seasons of

the year, the sky, the stars, the winds,

and all the other subjects appropriate

to his profession if he is really fit to

control the ship. Think that it's quite

impossible to acquire the professional

skill needed for such control, and that

there's no such thing as the art of

navigation. How much could a randomly

selected member of the Council of 500

really know? How much could he fully

contribute to society? Should we allow a

random member of society to have any

power? Instead, Plato would advocate for

the idea of a philosopher king, a man

who studies wisdom, logic, and

reasoning, a man who dedicates his life

to understanding how to be just, a man

who will become the navigator of wisdom.

Plato would rather say, "The society we

have described can never grow into a

reality or see the light of day, and

there will be no end to the troubles of

the states." Or, indeed, my dear Glalin,

of humanity itself, till philosophers

become rulers in this world, or till

those we now call kings and rulers

really and truly become philosophers,

and political power and philosophy thus

come into the same hands. There's just

one issue with Plato's quote. Every

leader thinks they're a philosopher

king. Everyone thinks their thoughts are

the best. Everyone thinks their ideas

are the wisest. From Yu the Great in

China to Labarnis of the Hittite Empire

to Sedara Gaimma of the Kingdom of

Magada in

India. While not so far away in the

Indian kingdom of Magada, a spoiled

prince named Sedarta Gaimma 500 B.CEE

lived in luxury inside a palace. Inside

this palace, Sedarta could have anything

he wanted. All the jewels, all the

wealth, all the finest goods thrust upon

him. His world inside of the palace was

a utopia on earth. There was no want,

need, or desire, and it was perfect

until he went outside his palace

compound, the only place he ever knew.

As he took his first steps outside of

his palace, what he saw struck a chord.

He saw an old man dying right on the

street in front. He realized that the

human experience wasn't something that

was perfect and sublime. Instead, it was

death. As Gilgamesh realized many years

ago, this was an inevitable part of the

human experience. Seda left his life of

luxury behind and began a quest for

knowledge and enlightenment. He studied

with spiritual teachers and meditated

for many years, searching for answers to

life's big questions. Finally, after 6

years of seeking, he sat down under a

fig tree and meditated until he achieved

enlightenment. Enlightenment is a state

of inner peace in which one has

transcended the limitations of the ego

and is in touch with a universal

consciousness or divine essence. It

isn't a fixed and permanent thing but

rather an ongoing process of growth and

development. But under that fig tree,

Sedarta became known as the Buddha or

the awakened one. He would spend the

rest of his life traveling the

countryside, becoming close to the

enlightenment. Darius was determined to

follow in his father's footsteps and

take over the world. After finalizing

their rule over the citystate of Ionia,

the Persians were on a quest to take

over Greece. Darius and his 20,000 men

came to the city of Marathon in the year

490 B.CE. a city 26.2 mi away from

Athens. The Athenians were vastly

outnumbered with only 10,000 men. As the

Persians were trying to regroup, the

powerful Greek hoplights crushed the

weaker Persian foot soldiers by routing

the wings before turning towards the

center of the Persian line. The remnants

of the Persian army fled to their ships

and left the battle. Early historians

believe the battlefield littered 6,400

Persian bodies while the Athenians lost

only 192. So the Persians retreated and

an Athenian messenger named Phipides ran

the 26.2 mi from Marathon to

Athens, exclaiming with joy how the

Athenians just beat the mighty Persian

Empire. All of Athens went crazy with

this fantastic news, hence leading the

Phipides historic trek to be sketched

into history as the world's first

marathon. However, the Persians weren't

done. Even with Darius I dying of

mysterious circumstances, his son,

Exeres I took over the crown and wanted

to complete his grandfather's legacy. In

480 B.CE. Xerxes I wanted revenge, so he

brought his enormous invasion force of

over

100,000 soldiers and was dead set on

conquering Greece. Then at a narrow pass

at Thermopoly, the Spartan king Leonitis

had his force of 7,000 Spartans maintain

the defense. Leonitis knew of his

disadvantage and developed a bold and

daring plan to defeat the Persians.

Rather than waiting for the Persians to

attack, Leonitis ordered his soldiers to

make a surprise attack on the Persian

camp, catching the Persians offguard and

disrupting their formation. Despite

their success, the Greek army was

ultimately overwhelmed by the Persians

who attacked from all sides and

eventually broke through the Greek

defenses. Leonitis and his soldiers

fought with courage and determination.

Still, they were ultimately defeated.

Then came the battle of Salamis where

the Greeks could change the tilt of the

war in a naval battle between the 500

Persian tri and 300 Greek tri. It didn't

look good for the Greeks. Still, the

great Athenian general, the Mysticles,

employed his plan to move the Persian

fleet into the narrow straits of Salamis

and hit the enemy fleet so hard that it

had nowhere to retreat. After a massive

sea battle, the Mysticles won Greece the

victory and changed the face of the war.

The Persians still had their goal.

Conquer the Greek citystates. Xer had

returned to Persia, leaving Persian

General Mardonius in charge of the

Persian force for most of the

significant battle yet. After diplomatic

talks ceased, Persia knew they had to

attack. As the Persians sent their

troops to Platea, the Greeks knew they

had to work together. With 30 various

Greek citystates working together, they

were able to field a massive

110,000 hoplight army with the primary

purpose of defeating Persia. Though that

was nothing compared to the estimated

150,000man army of Persia. The battle

was fierce and intense with both sides

fighting with ferocity and

determination. The Greek hoplights

continued to be effective against the

Persian cavalry and archers. The Greeks

also strategically used the terrain,

fighting on a slope that helped offset

the Persian numerical advantage. In the

end, the Greeks defeated the Persian

forces and secured a decisive victory.

The Persians suffered heavy losses and

Mardonius was killed in the fighting.

The battle of Platea marked the end of

the Greco Persian wars and the Persian

threat to Greece.

After the Persian War, life in ancient

Greece was spectacular. A golden age of

culture was upon us. With no longer

having to face the threat of war, Athens

was able to create architectural wonders

such as the Parthonon. The Parthonon

sits upon the Athenian Acropolis, a

prominent hill overlooking the city of

Athens to show its wealth and culture.

No matter where you'll go in Athens, you

can still see the great Parthonon even

today. Then came the theater. Around

this time, the state would sponsor the

most significant poets to create stories

in the Athenian festival called the city

Dionia. A festival designed to worship

the Greek god of theater and fertility,

Dionis, creating playwrights such as

Sophocles, Escilis, and Aristophanes.

[Music]

States were hungry for power. Athens was

recruiting citystates into their Dillian

alliance while Sparta was recruiting

citystates into their Pelpeneisian

alliance. Both Sparta and Athens felt

like they should control the city of

Corkia. Hence why in 434 B.CE war was

upon the Greek peninsula resulting in

naval battles such as the battle of

Ciblo and the battle of Pyos. By 421

B.CEE a short peace was negotiated.

However, this peace would not last and

Athens had their eyes on Sicily.

Initially, the expedition was going

well. The Athenians established

alliances with several Sicilian cities

and won several minor skirmishes against

the Sicilian forces. But soon Alabiades,

one of the greatest naval generals in

history, was recalled to Athens to face

charges of sacriage. The Athenian fleet

was left without his

leadership. In his absence, the

expedition began to unravel. The

Athenians could not take the city of

Syracuse, which had fortified its

defenses and was well prepared for a

siege. The Sicilians were aided by

reinforcements from Sparta, which saw an

opportunity to strike a crippling blow

against its arch rival, Athens. The

Athenians suffered from a lack of

supplies and were plagued by disease. At

the same time, the Syracus launched a

series of surprise attacks and ambushes.

Finally, after months of grueling

fighting, the Athenian fleet was

destroyed in a decisive battle.

Thousands of Athenians were killed and

many more were captured and enslaved. A

decade after that, Athens fell to the

Spartans. The age of legendary Greece

was now over. Both Athens and Sparta

were significantly weaker, never to

regain the same power they once had,

leaving the world ready for a

philosopher king to conquer it all.

Then in the east, the mandate of heaven

was up. The Zhao dynasty, after a long

800year rule, it was deemed by the

heavens that their empire was up, which

led to a period known as the waring

states 474 to 221 B.CE. This resulted in

Hanfi who created a new philosophy

called legalism. Followers of legalism

believed that people were inherently

selfish and would only act in their own

self-interest and that the only way to

keep them in line was through a system

of rewards and punishments that was

clear and consistently enforced. This

resulted in Fezy claiming that the best

way to achieve social order was by

establishing a powerful ruler

responsible for enforcing the law and

punishing wrongdoers. He also believed

the ruler should have complete control

over the military, the economy, and

society. While in the heart of the Waka

region of Mexico, the Zapotch

civilization started to flourish. The

capital city of Monte Alban was being

built on a mountaintop overlooking the

entire Waka Valley. Perched on the

mountaintop overlooking the valley of

Waka, the city was home to a ruling

elite who oversaw a hierarchal social

structure that included middleclass

artisans and lowerass farmers. The

people of the Zapotch civilization were

known for their innovative agricultural

practices, including the cultivation of

maze and other crops, which sustained

their communities in times of drought

and other environmental pressures. They

also developed an early writing system

which used a combination of symbols and

glyphs to represent words and ideas.

They developed an advanced calendar

system based on 260day and

3605day solar cycles.

In Greece during the year 356 B.CEE in

the city of Pella in the kingdom of

Macedon, the greatest commander in

history was born. Alexander the Great

grew up knowing he would be a leader and

was the son of King Philip II and Queen

Olympia. But the teacher was much more

impressive. Since he was a kid,

Alexander was tutored by Aristotle.

Aristotle is the man who is known as the

father of logic. He created the fields

of biology and taxonomy by introducing a

way to think called the scientific

method. A method that is still taught in

schools to this day. He also wrote

extensively about philosophy, ethics,

and art, changing the face of the world

as we know it today. This is the man who

was in charge of teaching Alexander the

Great. Alexander was 20 when his father

was assassinated. But his excellent

education allowed him to take over the

rest of the world. After his father died

in 336 B.CE, Alexander was hellbent on

keeping his family's power. So when the

Greek city of Thieves decided to revolt,

Alexander and his army marched 240 m in

14 days. When thieves refused to

surrender, he raised the entire city to

the ground and 6,000 were killed and the

rest were sold into slavery. The rest of

the Greek citystates recoiled in fear,

allowing Alexander to do as he pleased,

leaving for his new target to be Persia

and the new Persian king, Darius III. In

333 BC, Alexander faced the Persian army

at the Battle of Isus. This significant

engagement saw the Persian king Darius

III defeated and forced to flee.

Alexander then captured several key

cities, including the vital port of Ty,

which had resisted his initial siege. In

331 BC, Alexander faced Darius III again

at the Battle of Gagamela near the

Tigress River in modern-day Iraq.

Despite being outnumbered, Alexander won

a decisive victory using superior

tactics and mobility. The Persian army

was shattered and Darius III fled once

again. Alexander then proceeded to

capture the Persian capital of Babylon

and took control of much of Mesopotamia.

He continued his campaign eastward,

winning battles in what is now

modern-day Iran and Afghanistan. In 330

BC, he captured the Persian capital of

Procepils, a city of great wealth and

cultural significance. But Alexander

wasn't done. He wanted to expand

eastward, eventually crossing the Hindu

Kush mountains into India. However, his

troops grew tired of the endless

fighting and refused to go any further,

and Alexander was forced to turn back.

However, after Alexander failed in the

Indian subcontinent, a powerhouse

emerged in India called the Morian

Empire. At its height, it spanned over

much of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and

Afghanistan. However, this conquering

came at much of a cost for its leader,

Ashoka the Great. In 261 BC, after the

death of his parents, Ashoka decided

that his empire needed to expand. in his

sights, the kingdom of Kolinga. The war

was bloody. The war was fierce. Over a

100,000 people died. Ashoka couldn't

sleep with himself. He didn't know how

to deal with his actions that resulted

in so much death. So, he turned to the

teaching of the Buddha. Under Ashoka's

rule, the Morian Empire became known for

supporting Buddhist teachings and

promoting nonviolence. Ashoka issued a

series of edicts inscribed on rocks and

pillars throughout the empire that

promoted principles such as kindness,

respect for all religions, and the

abolition of slavery. Certain traits

were not shared in the West by

Alexander. In the West, it was deemed

honorable to die in combat, and a hero's

death would be remembered forever. A

farmer will die in anonymity. Alexander

died a few years later in Babylon at the

age of 32. Throughout his expedition,

Alexander was spreading Greek ideas

founded by his once wise teacher,

bringing the rise of Greek ideals across

the land, starting the seeds of the

western cultures we see today. Once

Alexander died, his empire just could

not sustain itself. His generals feuded

as to who should be the leader of this

great empire. Everyone wanted power yet

in fighting left to waste in oblivion.

Eventually in 323 BC after senseless

wars the Greek generals divided the

world into three major empires. The

Tomies in Egypt, the Seucids in the east

and the Antigonids in Greece.

Tomlamese, one of Alexander's generals,

led Egypt into a period of prosperity.

Inspiration by his former leader, Tomies

built the Library of Alexandria, a hub

for an intellectual scholarship.

Intellectuals from all over will come to

the library to exchange ideas and

thoughts throughout the world, leaving

us to have great philosophers like Plato

and Aristotle to be the backbone of our

culture. While the general Seucid was

given the keys to the city of Babylon.

Babylon at this time was a cultural hub

melting Greek, Persian, Indian and

Central Asian cultures. Seucid though

preferred Greek ideas and Greek

language. The Seucid Empire was at its

height during the reign of King

Antiochus III 223 BC to 187 BC. Under

King Antiochus III, the Seucids

encompassed a vast territory from

modern-day Turkey to modern-day

Pakistan, one of the largest empires on

record until the rise of the

Romans. While the Antigonids did not

have nearly as much success by the time

Antiggonids I took power, the Greeks

were just a shell of what they once

were. The age of the Greeks was behind

us. The Dolomies, the Seucids, and the

Antigonids went astray from the Roman

Empire. However, for Rome to rise, it

had to face a powerful foe, Carthage.

Both Rome and Carthage had a desire for

the same citystate, Msina, on the island

of Sicily. This would give either

civilization a foothold to grab power in

the Mediterranean. The first Punic war

was upon us and after 20 years of

fighting in the year 241 B.CEE and the

defeat of Carthage, the Treaty of

Lutatius was signed. The peace though

was short-lived. In 218 B.CE. the second

Punic Wars began when the Carthagian

general Hannibal invaded Italy with his

army, including elephants to conquer

Rome. Hannibal won several early battles

including the battle of Ka in 216 B.CE.

Still he was ultimately defeated by the

Roman general Cypio Aricanis at the

battle of Zama in 202 B.CEE. The war

resulted in the complete defeat of

Carthage which was forced to seed its

territories to Rome and the end of the

Carthaginian Empire. There was no doubt

in the world anymore that it was time

for the Romans to take charge in the

west. While in the east, after the end

of the waring states period, Chin Xi

Huang and the Chin dynasty were an

absolute power. 221 B.CE to 206 B.CE.

Chin was determined to turn diverse

China into a unified Chinese empire. He

divided the lands into 36 command areas

supervised by a governor, military

commander, and imperial inspector. It

was expected that you followed the will

of Chin or else you would face harsh

penalties. The basic ideas of legalism

in action, strong government, harsh

laws, and inheriting knowing that humans

were necessarily selfish. However, their

mandate from heaven ran quite quickly.

After Chinshi Huangs death, China was in

turmoil with another dynasty on

foot. Lu Bang, leader from 206 to 195

B.CE. After leading a revolt against the

Chin, was declared emperor of the new

Han dynasty. Instead of following the

strict legalistic mindset of the Chin,

Lu decided to set his empire as a

Confucianist paradise. The ideals of

moderation, virtue, and pity as set

through Confucianism were marched

throughout the empire, weaving the

cocoon of a powerful dynasty. During the

Han dynasty, the production of silk was

ever increasing, and the idea of profits

was in the minds of all. So, in 138

B.CE, Emperor Han Wu sent an imperial

convoy to make contact with cultures of

Central Asia and the Mediterranean. Then

after the routes were established,

Chinese merchants and traders would

bring their silk across the Silk Road to

the Middle East and eventually Europe

where it would be sold at high profits.

Though in the beginning, the route was

relatively short. Because in 97 BC,

Ambassador Coning was sent to Rome with

gifts of silk for their empire. However,

Khan only got as far as Mesopotamia,

because he was told by the Parththeians,

the dominant empire in Iran at the time,

that the journey would take years.

Little did Khan know that he was

misinformed, that the journey would have

been relatively shorter, but the

Parththeians wanted to keep their spot

as the middlemen. They did not want

China and Rome to have contact with one

another, creating a system of three

empires smooshed right up against each

other. Rome in the west, Parththeians in

the center and China in the

east. Then in 86 B.CEE, Greece, already

being weakened by the conquest of

Alexander the Great, was now the target

of the Roman Empire. General Lucius

Cornelius Sola led an army of legions to

the forefront of Athens. He besieged

Athens for several months, brutally

torturing the citizens within.

Eventually, when Athens fell, he ordered

his soldiers to loot and pillage the

city, destroying many important cultural

treasures. This takeover cemented Rome

as a superpower. Athens no longer had

the power, but rather it was in

Rome. While in 63 B.CE, CE, General

Pompei was tasked with capturing

Jerusalem and the region of Galilee. The

Romans quickly captured the cities,

forcing Galilee to be placed under Roman

rule, including a small village called

Nazareth. The Romans desire to expand

didn't end in Galilee. Though in 58

B.CE, De Julius Caesar was appointed

governor of the Roman provide of

Cicipolene Gaul, northern Italy with the

express assignment of conquering the

rest of the Gauls. At the time, the

Gauls were a group of Celtic peoples who

lived in that area that is now France,

Belgium, and parts of Switzerland,

Germany, and Italy. However, it was

Caesar's job to take over these Celtic

tribes. While the Gauls who were

insistent on their independence, all had

to work together under the leadership of

Versen Jederics in a lastditch attempt

to stop the Romans. As Caesar brought

his troops to Alleia in 52 BC, war was

upon us. Alicia was surrounded by a

double wall and a ditch with additional

fortifications on the town's hills.

Versen Jeder had gathered a large force

of GIC warriors inside the town. In

contrast, Caesar had assembled a sizable

Roman army outside the walls. Caesar

realized that a direct assault on the

town would be complex. So, he surrounded

the GIC forces and starve them into

submission. He ordered the construction

of a series of fortifications around

Alicia, including a circumalation wall

that encircled the town and a second

wall and ditch that faced outward to

defend against any attempts to break

out. Over several weeks, Caesar's forces

engaged in a grueling siege of Allesia.

With both sides suffering heavy losses,

the GIC warriors inside the town made

several attempts to break out, but they

were repelled by the Roman forces. The

tide of the battle turned in favor of

the Romans when a second GIC army led by

Versened's ally Commus attempted to

relieve the siege. Caesar sent a

detachment of his forces to intercept

the GIC reinforcements. After a fierce

battle, the Roman soldiers emerged

victorious. With his forces surrounded

and facing starvation, Versenetics was

forced to surrender. He emerged from

Allegia and offered himself as a

prisoner to Caesar, effectively ending

the GIC resistance to Roman rule.

Throughout the next 2 years, Caesar

crossed the GIC Empire, conquering and

implementing it into Rome. The Gauls

were implemented into Rome, even gaining

citizenship within the

empire. However, the Senate was not

happy with Caesar. Even though he had

great success against the Gauls, the

Roman Senate wanted him to stop. They

did not like the popularity Caesar was

gaining, nor the power he was

controlling. So the Roman Senate called

upon Caesar to resign his command and

disband his army or risk being declared

an enemy of the state. This led Caesar

to an essential choice to make. Will he

either follow the will of the Roman

Senate or ignore them and start a bloody

civil war? Roman law at the time

prohibited any general from crossing the

Rubicon River and entering mainland

Italy with a standing army without the

expressed permission of the Roman

Senate. To do so would be treason, and

this tiny stream would reveal Caesar's

intentions and mark the point of no

return. Civil war was imminent as Caesar

and his army marched over the Rubicon.

Battles in Corfinium and Farales showed

the Senate that Caesar was a worthy foe.

So the Roman Senate appointed his

son-in-law Nais Pompi to lead the Roman

forces against his father-in-law. Both

parties knew the importance of Spain due

to it providing a link between Italy and

the rest of Europe. The two armies

clashed near the town of Lea in

northeastern Spain. Caesar's army was

significantly outnumbered, but he could

use his superior military tactics and

training to gain the upper hand in the

battle. After several days of intense

fighting, Caesar emerged victorious,

forcing Pompy's forces to retreat,

declaring Caesar as the new leader of

Rome. When Caesar made it back to Rome,

the crowds were chanting, "Hail Caesar!

Hail Caesar!" The people then decided

that he would be the dictator of Rome

for life. Caesar immediately set to work

implementing a series of reforms and

policies aimed at improving ordinary

Romans lives and strengthening the

central government's power. He ordered

the construction of new infrastructure

such as roads, bridges, and aqueducts

which helped to connect different parts

of the city and improve trade and

commerce. Caesar also enacted a series

of political and social reforms,

including granting citizenship to many

people living in the Roman Empire and

creating new laws and customs that were

based on Roman practices. He encouraged

the spread of the Latin language and

culture throughout the city and

established the Julian calendar, which

is the basis of the calendar we use

today. However, Caesar's reign was

short-lived because 2 years later in 44

BC, he was stabbed to death by two loyal

senators, Casius and Brutus. The

assassination of Caesar led the Roman

world into disarray. The world was

filled with factions vying for

government control without a strong

leader.

Octaven Caesar's son, who was 18 then,

came to Rome to claim his inheritance

and assert his place in the political

landscape. He quickly aligned himself

with Caesar's loyal lieutenant, Mark

Anthony. Together, they defeated

Caesar's assassins at the Battle of

Philippi in 42 B.CE. However, tensions

soon arose between Octavian and Anthony

as both men vied for control of the

Roman Empire. In 31 B.CE, de their

forces clashed in the naval battle of

Actium which resulted in Octaven

emerging as the clear victor. Anthony

fled to Egypt with his lover Cleopatra

and the two committed suicide the

following year. With Antony's defeat,

Octavian emerged as the undisputed ruler

of Rome. In 27 B.CEE, he was appointed

Augustus and became the first Roman

emperor.

During Augustus's reign, a man who would

change the world was born in the Roman

occupied city of Bethlehem, Jesus

Christ. The Gospel of Luke says, "In

those days, a decree went out from

Caesar Augustus that all the world

should be registered. This was the first

registration when Corinius was governor

of Syria, and all went to be registered,

each to his own town." Luke 2 1-3. This

census was an essential factor in Roman

society because it established the

population counts in these various

communities making it possible to tax

these various citizens. So the highly

pregnant Mary and her betrothed husband

Joseph had to travel 90 miles on foot

from Nazareth to Bethlehem to complete

this legally required Roman census. When

they arrived in Bethlehem, many other

descendants of the King of David or

members of the Jewish faith were also

going to Bethlehem for the census. They

found out that there was no room for

them in the inn. So, they were forced to

take shelter in a stable where Mary gave

birth to Jesus. Jesus was later named

King of the Jews. After Jesus's birthday

and the completion of the census, Mary

and Joseph returned to Nazareth with

their extraordinary son. As the years of

Jesus went on, stories about him grew.

More and more followers began to worship

Jesus as their Messiah. They claimed

that he can catch an endless amount of

fish. They claimed that he can cure the

blind. And they claimed that he was the

son of God. So these followers,

specifically his disciples, started to

write down his entire life journey. Four

of his closest disciples, Matthew, Mark,

Luke, and John, wrote down the main

chunks of the book in these parts called

Gospels. Each of these gospels covered

almost all of the same events, the

narrative life of Jesus Christ. This

narrative testimony of a child born in a

stable changed the world

forever. Even though many loved Jesus,

some viewed him as a threat. Emperor

Tiberius succeeded Augustus and reigned

from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was

notorious for his delators, a network of

informants rewarded for spying and

reporting on suspected traitors and

criminals. Criminals reported on by the

Delators had to face a treason trial,

often resulting in executions or forced

suicides. His prefect of Judea at the

time, Pontius Pilate, was no stranger to

the harsh punishment of traitors. As

Jesus was influencing more and more

people, he became more of a political

threat. So, following the guidelines of

Emperor Tiberius, Pilate was given no

practical political choice other than to

execute Jesus on the cross. Roman law

was evident. Then, one must follow the

emperor's will or else they will perish.

As Jesus was crucified on the cross, a

new religion was born.

Christianity. In the beginning,

Christianity was just a small sect of

Judaism. Nevertheless, its growth would

[Music]

unparalleled. Paul of Taurus would take

the word of his chosen Lord across the

known world. From Greece to Turkey to

Syria, the word of Jesus Christ spread.

His missionary tales are now documented

in the New Testament as the book of

Acts. The more Paul went to different

places, the more followers he gained. On

the same token, it created more enemies.

The divide between monotheism and

polytheism was on the rise. It was

beginning to get a lot tougher for

Romans to accept a religious population

that didn't believe in gods like Mars

and Jupiter. So when the great fire of

Rome occurred in July of 64 AD, Emperor

Nero quickly blamed it on the

Christians. The great fire was an event

that destroyed 23 of the city of Rome.

So in order to pay for these massive

repairs, Nero instituted heavy tributes

across the empire. to meet at least a

proportion of the costs. Nurero also

started to print more Roman currency,

creating an inflationary effect for the

first time in the empire's history.

However, the individuals who lived under

Roman rule, which wasn't in Rome proper,

were upset by this new policy. So, in

the holy city of Jerusalem in 66 AD, a

revolt was on. At first, the first

Jewish revolt succeeded and the Jewish

forces quickly expelled the unprepared

Roman army. Then the rebels gained some

traction in the neighboring villages in

Galilee. In response, the Roman Emperor

Nero sent the general Vespasian to meet

the Jewish forces. An endeavor that

pushed most rebels into Jerusalem proper

by the time Vespasian was proclaimed

emperor in 69 CE. Then around Passover

in 70 AD, Vespasian and his forces

sieged the city, depleting it of food

and water within the walls of Jerusalem.

The Jews started to quarrel within,

leaving them more vulnerable to attack.

By August, the Romans breached the

defenses, killed much of the population,

and destroyed many of their holy sites.

With the Jews decimated, the strength of

polytheism lived long.

Then in 98 to 117 AD under Emperor

Trean, the Roman Empire was able to

expand its greatest territorial extent,

spanning all the way from modern-day

Britain to the Persian Gulf. Roman rule

was

everywhere. Well, except for in the

Americas, because the Romans didn't even

know they existed. In the Americas, we

can see the growth of various

civilizations across the Andes located

in modern-day Peru and Chile. The Mochi

civilization was able to build

monumental structures like the Wakadel

Soul and Wakadela Luna. Impressive

pyramids that were the center of their

religions. They also created advanced

fertilization techniques that used bird

droppings as fertilizer. Their highly

centralized government made everyone

know their place in

society. While a little bit more south,

the Nazca civilization is one enthralled

in mystery. The people of Nazca created

a series of large scale geoglyph

consisting of hundreds of individual

figures, including geometric shapes,

animals, and human-like figures by

removing the dark reddish brown iron

oxidecoated pebbles covering the surface

of the Nazca desert. These lines are now

called Nazca lines, the purpose of which

is still unknown to this day and subject

to conspiracy theory today.

Around 100 AD, the Zapotch started

establishing Monte Albban, their

capital. It was one of the first

examples of urban planning in the

Americas. The city was laid out in a

grid pattern with main roads and smaller

side streets leading to plazas and

public buildings. The city was also

divided into different districts, each

with specialized functions such as

residential, administrative, and

religious, leaving it to be in use for a

thousand years after

[Music]

that. While back in Rome, after the end

of Trajan's reign in 117 AD, a new

emperor with a purpose was in hand.

Hadrien was a man tasked with a near

impossible. Keeping the massive Roman

Empire under one rule. He first had to

deal with a crisis with the newly

colonized Roman Britain. Like their

predecessors in Judea, the Roman Brits

did not like being Roman. So they

started to cause unrest. And in the eyes

of Hadrien, a real threat of revolution

was on his mind. So Hadrien had ordered

a massive wall aptly named Hadrien's

wall which spanned almost coast to

coast. Keeping it sunk in the conquered

people's minds that the Romans were here

staving off revolution in one region.

However, in Galilee things weren't as

peaceful. Simon Bar Kokba led a

rebellion of the Jewish people to free

themselves from Roman rule. As you see,

Rome was developing a new city called

Alia Capolina over the ruins of

Jerusalem from the last revolt with

temples dedicated to polytheistic gods

like Jupiter. By 132, Bar Kokba took the

bottle of Nasi, head of state. Many Jews

regarded him as the Messiah who would

save the Jewish people and restore their

independence. Goka's troops would storm

Ilia Capalina, almost knocking out

entirely the Roman garrison controlling

the city. Hadrien though would not have

it. So he sent a force of 120,000 men to

the lands of Judea to conquer and force

the Jewish people into submission. As

Casius Dio says in the history of Rome,

50 of their most important outposts and

985 of their most famous villages were

raised.

580,000 men were slain in the various

raids and battles, and the number of

those that perished by famine, disease,

and fire was past finding out. Thus,

nearly the whole of Judea was made

desolate. History of Rome

69.14 1:2 Rome made it clear that it was

not to be taken

lightly. While in China, the message was

quite different. The ideas of Buddhism

were spreading along with the Chinese

philosophies of Confucianism and Tauism

and built a dynasty. These three

philosophies work together to make the

Han dynasty stronger and more united in

many

ways. While in America, the Mayan

architects went across northern Pin and

designed a series of short broad temples

with wide staircases flanked by enormous

stucco masks. These stucco masks were

made of plaster and some burned and

powdered limestone. The Mayans built

these stone armatures into elaborate

deity faces to capture the soul of the

gods and bring it to the people. A

temple like the E7 sub, yes, historians

name Mayan temples like military

submarines, is a pyramid with 16 stucco

masks. Each allows us to go deeper into

the souls of these deities of the

past. In the Middle East, a new empire

was emerging with roots in the past. A

man named Ardashir claimed to have royal

blood that traced all the way back to

Cyrus the Great. Ardashir claimed that

he should be the true ruler of the

Persian Empire, not those frauds of the

Parththeians. Artichir was able to unite

the various tribes of Persia. In 224 AD,

Artichir I led his forces against the

Parthian king Artabenus V in a

significant battle at Hermas. The

Cisanian forces known for their cavalry

defeated the Parththeians and captured

Artabinus V. With this victory, Ardashir

I declared himself king and established

the Cisanian Empire. Ardashir I quickly

established a centralized government and

built a new capital at Tijapon on the

Tigris River. He reestablished the

Zoroastrian religion which had been

suppressed by the Parththeians as the

empire's official religion. He also

built a powerful military machine with

skilled cavalry and archers. He began to

expand his territory by conquering

neighboring

regions. As the Parththeians were on

their way out, so were the Han. The Han

dynasty's downfall was marked by

political instability, economic

problems, external threats, internal

rebellions, and power struggles. The

weakening of central authority allowed

regional warlords to seize power, and

the government's attempts to address

economic issues were unsuccessful.

External threats and rebellions weakened

the dynasty even further. A warlord

named Sao Pi declared himself emperor

and established the Weii dynasty,

officially ending the Han

dynasty. While back in Rome, Emperor

Dialesian 284 to 305 faced a problem.

Rome was becoming too large and

impossible to manage. So, Dialesian

created the tetrarchy and divided the

region into four where each region was

governed by a separate emperor. Within

the tetra, there were two types of

emperors, Augustus and Caesars.

Dialesian chose Maxameon to be his equal

to Augustus. In contrast, Galleras and

Constantius were appointed to be

Caesars. However, this system created

uncontrolled chaos and anarchy. Each

emperor had desires for power and

ambition and it all came to a head in

305 when power shifted. Both Dialesian

and Maximian retired and in 306

Constantius died. Three out of the four

original leaders were left out of the

system leading to a power vacuum to

come. Emperor Constantine the Great was

appointed by his father's army

unilaterally as an Augustus and a Caesar

at the same time to replace his father.

At the same time, Maximan's son,

Maxentius, felt as though he should have

been appointed Caesar instead of

Valyriius Seis. So, in 307, Maxentius

sent his army and forced Valyriius Seis

to surrender. Come 308, Galleras

appointed Lascinius to replace him. So

on the west side of Rome, two emperors

wanted to rule. Constantine ruled over

Gaul in Britain and Maxentius ruled

Italy and North Africa. Maxentius had a

difficult time consolidating his power

and he faced increasing resistance from

the people of Rome. To try and secure

his hold on power, Maxentius ordered the

construction of a new bridge across the

Tyber River near Rome known as the

Milvian Bridge. Constantine saw

Maxentius as a threat to his power. So

he decided to march on Rome to confront

him. As the two armies approached each

other near the Milvian Bridge,

Constantine had a vision of a cross in

the sky with the words in this sign

conquer. Some accounts suggest that this

vision may have been a dream or a

hallucination, while others suggest that

it may have been a sign from God.

Regardless of the nature of the vision,

Constantine took it as a sign that he

would be victorious in battle if he

fought under the sign of the Christian

cross. He had his soldiers paint this

symbol on their shields and banners, and

he went into battle with renewed vigor

and confidence. The battle was fierce

and brutal, with both sides suffering

heavy losses. Maxentius had a larger

army, but his troops were spread out and

disorganized. Constantine was able to

take advantage of this, and he was able

to push Maxentius's forces back towards

the Tyber River. In the chaos of the

retreat, Maxentius was forced off the

Milvian Bridge and into the water where

he drowned. Shortly after his victory,

Constantine met Lasinius at Midolanum,

modern Milan, to confirm several

political and dynastic arrangements to

produce the edict of Milan. This edict

gave power for Eastern Rome to the

Cinius and Constantine sole power of the

West. More importantly though, this

document extended religious tolerance

for Christians and restored any

properties confiscated from them during

the persecution. However, the peaceful

coexistence of both rulers was

short-lived. Though the edict allowed

for the safety of Christians, The Cineas

was still very much a paganist. Their

differences started to grow. All came

near the city of Crosopoulos in 324 AD

where both armies went and fought.

Constantine's military might was on

display. He was able to force the

Eastern Roman army towards the sea,

leaving many to be killed or captured.

Constantine was declared the sole leader

of Rome and Leinius was declared dead by

hanging. He renamed the eastern Roman

capital from Bisantium to Constantinople

to celebrate his victory. Then in 325

AD, Constantine presided over the first

council of Nissa when the 300 bishops

established the now famous Nyine Creed

which declared that Jesus Christ was

begotten, not made, and of one substance

with the father. Constantine was finally

baptized as a Christian on his deathbed

in 337 AD.

Come 370 AD, a new player was on the

scenes. The Huns were a barbaric nomadic

civilization who were masters of

warfare. According to legends, they were

taught horsemanship as early as the age

of three. Also, they would attack their

own with a sword to teach them how to

endure pain. These people weren't to be

messed lightly with. When they crossed

the Vulga River in 370 on their horses

and lusted for blood, the Allen

civilization didn't stand much chance. 2

years later, they attacked the Asher

Goths, an eastern tribe of Germanic

Goths, who harassed the Roman Empire by

frequently attacking their territories.

By 376, the Huns had attacked the

Visigothths, the western tribe of Goths,

and forced them to seek sanctuary within

the Roman Empire. As the Huns dominated

Goth and Visigothth lands, they earned a

new reputation as the new barbarians in

town and seemed unstoppable. By 395 AD,

they began invading Roman domains. And

some Roman Christians believed they were

devils who arrived straight from

hell. The reason they started invading

Rome was because of the death of

Theodosius the Great. His shining

achievement as emperor was keeping the

Goths and the Huns at bay. But on death,

he decided to follow the ideas of

Diolesian and split the empire up again.

splitting up control between his two

sons, Arcadius in the east and Honorius

in the west, making Theodosius the last

leader of a united

Rome. With Honorius in charge, the

incapable general made Western Rome an

easy target to be bullied. The

Visigothths, looking for a new place to

live, had their eyes set on Rome. So

throughout the early 410s, the Visigoths

ransacked various Roman cities. Then on

August 24th, 410, the Visigoth sacked

Rome, taking control of this historic

city. It was the first time in nearly

800 years that a foreign army occupied

the city of Rome. However, the Visigoths

couldn't maintain control of Rome.

Instead, they continued to ransack Roman

territories until they established their

kingdom in 418 in modern-day

Spain. While the prospects of existence

weren't so much better in Eastern Rome,

the notorious Attilaa the Hun was

gaining power and his brutal tactics

called him the scourge of God. After a

failed peace attempt in 441, Attilla and

his army stormed through the Balkans and

the Danaban frontier. Another peace

treaty was forged in 442, but Attilla

attacked again in

443, killing, ransacking, and pillaging

his way to the well fortified city of

Constantinople. However, due to

Constantinople's high walls, Attilla

couldn't conquer it. Instead, Attilla

was able to muster another peace

agreement. He would leave Constantinople

alone in exchange for an annual tribute

2,100 of gold. a staggering sum. Then in

451, the Huns invaded the Gauls,

allowing the once enemies of the

Visigoths and the Romans to wise up and

work together to fight the Huns.

According to legend, the night before

the imminent battle, Attilla consulted

sacrificed bones and saw that thousands

of his army would fall in the fight. The

next day, his premonition came true. In

the Battle of the Catalanian Plains,

after hours of ferocious fighting, tens

of thousands of soldiers lay dead,

giving Attilla his first and only

military defeat in history. However,

even after the loss, Attilla and his

army marched on and returned to Italy,

continuously ravaging the cities. In

452, with Rome in sight, he met Pope Leo

I, who acted as an emissary between

Aillaa and Rome. There's no record of

what they discussed. Still, according to

legend, the apparitions of St. Paul and

St. Peter appeared to Aillaa. They

threatened to kill him if he didn't

negotiate with Pope Leo I. Attilla

decided to pull out of Italy and return

to the great Hungarian plane. Whether

because of his fear of the Pope and his

saintly allies or because of his troops

were stretched too thin and weakened by

malaria.

However, the struggle for Western Rome

wasn't over. In 476 AD, the young

emperor Romulus Augustus had trouble

keeping power for himself as many Romans

felt he was illegitimate. So, the

Eastern Roman Empire sent the Germanic

general Odaser and his mercenaries to

suppress a revolt by the Roman army in

the region. However, instead of

supporting the Eastern Roman Empire,

Odaser saw an opportunity to seize power

for himself. He turned against the Roman

government and deposed the last Western

Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus,

effectively marking the end of the

Western Roman Empire. As the steps of

his victory, Odaser was declared the

king of Italy. However, Odaser's victory

was short-lived because in 493,

Theodoric the Great of the Ostrogoths

with the support of Eastern Roman

Emperor Zeno came in and created the

Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy, sending

Odius to meet his

fate. While Europe was in the crux of a

dark age, India under the Gupta Empire

was in a mathematical golden age. Great

mathematicians like Brahma Gupta started

using zero as a placeholder and as

various solutions for mathematical

equations. The astronomer Arabata was

able to calculate the circumference of

the earth. He proved the world was round

long before it was globally accepted.

Arabata was also able to develop methods

for calculating pi and square roots.

However, his crowning achievement was

creating the concept of an asytote,

which is a line that approaches the

curve but never touches

it. The Franks under Clovis I had been

engaged with the Alammani, another

Germanic tribe, and tensions between the

two groups were running high. In 496 AD

in the battle of Tobek, Clovis I led his

forces into battle against the Alammani

with both sides eager to gain the upper

hand in the ongoing struggle for power

and territory. As the Alammani began to

push the Franks to defeat and a moment

of desperation, Clovis called out to the

Christian God for assistance, promising

to convert to Christianity if he emerged

victorious. According to legend, a

sudden thunderstorm appeared and the

Franks could regroup and launch a

successful counterattack against the

Alammani. The battle ended in a decisive

victory for the Franks and Clovis kept

his promise and converted to

Christianity, officially cementing

Christianity to the forefront and

birthing the Frankish kingdom.

While the western Roman Empire might

have fallen in the east the Roman Empire

was changing. Many historians argue that

the Eastern Roman Empire based out of

Constantinople should be considered a

part of Rome. However, it is undeniable

that under Justinian I would lead the

Eastern half into its next chapter in

life, the Byzantine Empire. Whether it's

a continuation of the Roman Empire

before is a debate for another under.

Under the leadership of Justinian I,

like many Roman emperors before him, he

would expand the Byzantine Empire to

reach places such as Italy, North

Africa, and even Spain. He also

commissioned a team of legal scholars to

codify all the laws of the Roman Empire

known as the Corpus Jurus Civilis, which

became the basis of the European laws we

know today. He also commissioned the

world-renowned Hegia Sophia in

Constantinople where this beautiful

cathedral adorned with intricate mosaics

and marble decorations became the head

of the Eastern Orthodox

[Music]

Church. However, Jesus wasn't the only

prophet at the time. In the small town

of Mecca, a nomadic tribe called the Qur

gave birth to a man who would change the

religious world yet again. Muhammad.

Muhammad was orphaned at an early age

and was raised by his grandfather and

later his uncle. As he grew up, he

worked as a merchant, which earned him

the nickname Alamin, meaning the

trustworthy. On one of his pilgrimages

in 610, Muhammad meditated in a cave on

Mount Jabalor, the angel Gabriel

appeared and relayed the word of God.

Recite in the name of your Lord who

creates creates a man from a clot.

Recite for your Lord is most generous

became the opening verses of Surah.

Chapter 96 of the Quran. At first,

Muhammad was reluctant, not knowing how

to disclose this information. However,

soon enough, Muhammad began to gather a

small following, which was mocked by the

pagans of Mecca. However, when Muhammad

denounced idol worship, the leader of

Mecca knew that he was through. So,

through the resistance from Mecca,

Muhammad and his followers were

eventually forced to immigrate to

Medina, a city 260 mi away. there.

Muhammad was instrumental in ending

various civil wars, creating a

prosperous Muslim community.

Nevertheless, this prosperity would be

challenged by the members of Muhammad's

old tribe, the Curesh and their allies,

who marched up to Medina with a large

army to attack the Muslims. Muhammad

devised a plan that they could defend

the city if they dug a trench around its

perimeter, making it near impossible for

enemy forces to penetrate. For several

weeks, the Curesh tried to break through

the trench, trying and trying yet again.

Eventually, strong wind and heavy rain

caused the Curesh forces to abandon the

siege, marking the Muslims as

victorious. In 6:30, the Muslim army

marched into Mecca, taking the city with

minimum casualties. Muhammad gave

amnesty to the enemy leaders who once

opposed him, converting most of the

Meccan population to

Islam. At the time of Muhammad's death,

the Muslims had successfully united the

Arabian Peninsula under the banner of

Islam. After Muhammad's death, a series

of caiffs or leaders took over the

leadership of the Muslim community.

Beginning with Abu Bakr, a close

companion of the prophet. Under the

leadership of the caiffs, the Muslim

community continued to expand its

territory, conquering new lands and

spreading the message of Islam. At

first, Akubacher had his eyes set on the

Byzantine Empire's provinces of Syria,

taking over the crucial cities of

Damascus and Jerusalem. Then in 636, the

Arab forces invaded the Sassined Empire,

taking over their capital city in 637,

marking the end of the Sassined Empire.

Onward to Egypt they went, where after

years of fighting they successfully

defeated the Byzantine to take over the

city of Alexandria in 642 AD,

economically crippling the Byzantines.

By 716, the Arab forces had conquered

much of North Africa, Carthage, and

Spain, so that by 716, the Arabs had an

extensive empire from Lisbon to China.

After consolidating their hold on the

Iberian Peninsula, the Arabs launched

raids into neighboring Franchia,

modern-day France, in 732 AD, they

launched a significant invasion to

expand their territory northward. The

Arabs forces led by Amir Abdul Raman

Algafiki quickly conquered several

cities in the region, including Bordeaux

and Tours. However, Charles Martell, the

military leader of the Franks, assembled

a large army to meet the Arabs in

battle. The battle of Christianity

versus Islam. Both empires wanted to

keep their own faith. The Arabs wanted

to impose their religion onto the

Franks. The two forces clashed near

Tours on October 10th, 7:32 AD. The

battle was fierce and lasted several

days with both sides suffering heavy

casualties. In the end though, Charles

Martell and the Franks emerged

victorious and the Arab forces were

forced to retreat back to Spain, ending

the massive expansion of the Arabic

Empire.

[Music]

While in the west the definition of god

was war in China during the rule of the

tang religions like Buddhism, taoism and

confucianism all coexisted peacefully. A

citizen was able to believe what they

wanted to believe for many temples and

pagotas to be built across the empire.

Also during the tang the height of

Chinese poetry was upon us. Poets like

Leeo and Dufu created poems that later

became the foundations of Chinese

literature. Leeo wrote a poignant poem

called Zanzen on theQing thing mountain

translated by Sam Hamill. The birds have

vanished down the sky. Now the last

cloud drains away. We sit together the

mountain and me until only the mountain

remains.

Charlemagne, also known as Charles the

Great, became the king of the Franks in

768. Charlemagne was a skilled military

leader who expanded the Frankish Empire

through successful campaigns. He

conquered much of Western Europe,

including modern-day France, Germany,

Italy, and Spain. Charlemagne was also a

devout Christian, and worked to spread

Christianity throughout his empire.

In 785, Heron was declared caiff.

Instead of focusing on conquering like

his brethren, he instead focused on the

scientific growth in the new capital

city of Baghdad. Heron al-Rashid wanted

to create the House of Wisdom, a library

and research center that attracted

scholars from around the world. These

scholars would come to the house of

wisdom with the desire to learn. They've

translated the works of the past as well

as developing the science of algebra,

chemistry, sociology, and the concept of

infinity. While the Vikings had a

different idea of progress. The Vikings

were a group of univilized pagans from

modern-day Scandinavia who wanted to

gain material wealth. So, June 8th, 793

AD marked the beginning of the Viking

age in Europe. Lindesfarn was a small

isolated island off the northeast coast

of England that was home to a famous

monastery and considered one of Europe's

most important centers of learning. On

the day of the raid, a group of Viking

warriors, likely from Norway or Denmark,

landed on the island and attacked the

monastery. The Vikings pillaged the

monastery, killing many monks and taking

others as slaves. The raid was a brutal

and unexpected attack on a place of

great religious and cultural

significance and it sent shock waves

throughout

Europe. In 799 in Rome, Pope Leo III was

attacked by a faction of Rome who

believed that the Pope was guilty of

tyranny and serious personal misconduct.

So, Pope Leo III ran away to the

Frankish kingdom. After this,

Charlemagne and his Frank army provided

an escort for the Pope and restored him

to the papal office. But yet, the power

of the papacy was being questioned with

many people wanting it to go away, which

caused Charlemagne to go to Rome in late

800 to fight for his pope. For his

loyalty, on Christmas Day in the

Basilica of St. Peter. Pope Leo III

placed a crown on Charlemagne's head,

declaring him the new Holy Roman

Emperor, creating a new Roman Empire,

the Holy Roman Empire, or at least the

first rendition of it. Under

Charlemagne, the foundations of a

genuinely great empire were forming. But

once Charlemagne died in 814, the new

empire was bludgeoning with

problems.

His son Lewis the pious 788 to 840

inherited an empire filled with

problems. Many of his own citizens

viewed him as a strong Catholic who was

well-intentioned but was incredibly weak

and unable to do anything. As the

Vikings continued their raids along the

Ryan River, attacking Holy Roman Empire

cities such as Cologne, Trier, and

Mains, raiding various Catholic

monasteries and destroying religious

artifacts caused fear and hatred among

his citizens. Why would anyone trust a

leader if they can't stop barbaric

pagans? So, various local leaders

started to focus on defending their land

rather than relying on the central

government for defense. Hence beginning

the process of independently recreating

the Chinese system of feudalism. At this

time, people would willingly farm on

lands, giving up their freedom to these

local leaders to protect them from the

Vikings, creating the basis of a new

system of

feudalism. While the Holy Roman Empire

might have been fighting with the

Vikings and the Byzantines were fighting

with the Arabs, in 820, a group of Arab

raiders landed on the island of Cree.

Over the next several years, Arab forces

gradually gained control of the island,

overcoming the resistance of the

Byzantine defenders. The conquest was

completed in 827 and Cree became part of

the Arab Empire. The conquest of Sicily

and Sardinia followed a similar pattern.

In 827, a large Arab fleet landed on

Sicily and Arab forces quickly gained

control of much of the island. They then

moved on to Sardinia which fell to the

Arab invaders in

828. In the Holy Roman Empire once Lewis

the Pious died in 840 AD. So did the

Charlemagne Empire. The infighting

between family members grew leading to

the Holy Roman Empire being divided

between three family members in the

famous Treaty of Verdon. In the west,

the formation of the West Frankish

kingdom was given to Charlemagne's

grandson, Charles the Bald, in

modern-day France. In the East, the East

Frankish Kingdom was given to another

grandson, Lewis the German, which was

obviously settled in modern-day Germany,

while the Middle Kingdom was given to

Charlemagne's eldest son, Lair. However,

being squeezed in between the West and

East Frankish kingdoms gave the Middle

Kingdom a short lifespan and was

practically

irrelevant. The Vikings weren't just a

problem for mainland Europe. They were

pillaging everything in mainland

England. So, in 871, the new king of

Wessex, Alfred the Great, rose to power

with one thing in mind, keeping everyone

safe. Alfred built a network of

fortifications known as burrs designed

to protect his people from Viking

attacks. He also developed new military

tactics and strategies and fostered

alliances with other Anglo-Saxon

kingdoms. Unlike in Great Britain

though, the Vikings were actually

invited to Russia. According to Russian

legend, the tribes in Russia were tired

of dealing with political strife. So

they invited the Verangians, a sect of

Vikings to establish order and a

government over there. Hence, Rurick

came with his two brothers to the city

of Navgarod and using the Vikings famous

force, they were able to establish order

in the city. Declaring Rurick as their

new king, creating the Keieven Roose

dynasty. Under the military leadership

of Oleg, one of the Ruric Kingsmen, the

Keieven RS started establishing Smolinsk

and Kiev in modern-day Ukraine, creating

the forefront of Russia today.

While back in England, expanding upon

his grandfather Alfred the Great's

alliance network, Athlan was declared

king of Essex, Athlan was able to get

all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to work

together to fend off the Vikings of the

British Isles. He was declared to be the

first king of England due to his ability

to navigate alliances and keep everyone

safe, beginning one of the longest

monarchies in human history.

While the East Frankish kingdom was

facing a similar problem, the pagan

maguars were attacking everyone across

the kingdom, leaving the kingdom to live

in fear. However, King Otto of the East

Frankish Empire was able to defeat the

pesky Maguars at the Battle of Lechfeld

955. Then in 961, he could fully conquer

all of the kingdoms of Italy, restoring

Christendom to all the former pagans. So

in 962 Otto I was coronated to Pope John

I 12th in Rome to be the new Holy Roman

Emperor. In France though the West

Frankish kingdom was struggling because

in 987 King Louis V a direct descendant

of Charlemagne died at age 20 without

leaving an heir to take over their

dynasty leaving the French monarchy in

peril. So the French aristocracy had an

election between Hugh Kappit, a noble

with extensive lands in the region of

Isle de France and Charles, Duke of

Lower Lraine. With the support of

Adelber, the Archbishop of Roms, Hugh

Kapet became the first king of France,

starting the Capescian dynasty.

[Music]

However, at this time, the typical

person in Europe was always living in

fear. Every civilization was on the

verge of conquering. They've all become

landhungry and were willing to fight for

it. So, across Europe at this time,

every civilization started to entrench

their society in the ideas of feudalism

leading to another social pyramid. At

the bottom lay the serfs. Their job was

to farm the land and ensure everyone was

fed. Then came the knight who provided

protection for the people. Then came the

nobles who ruled over a specific

territory owning the land. Then came the

kings as previously mentioned who gave

lands to the nobles. But all the way at

the top was the pope because the pope

could speak directly to God and had

godgiven ownership of all the lands.

In the early 11th century, Leaf Ericson

was sent on a voyage to discover lands

west of Greenland. If you look at a map,

west of Greenland is the Americas. So,

Leaf and his crew ventured to this new

mystical land called Vinland in

modern-day New Finland, Canada. Leaf and

his crew spent the winter in Vinland,

establishing a small settlement and

trading with the local indigenous

people. They also explored the

surrounding area which they found rich

in natural resources including timber,

fish, and game. Leaf and his crew

returned to Greenland in the spring

where they were greeted as heroes for

discovering new lands. Little did Leaf

know that he discovered a new continent

for his European people.

[Music]

Though significantly less is known about

the Americas, some historians believe

that at the time a similar type of

expansion happened in the American

continent like in Europe. Sadly, we just

don't have the historical records from

this unique period. We know that the

Mayans down in South America were

building the impressive cities of Tikl,

Palenke, and Chichinitsa having a

population of anywhere between 2 and 10

million. We also know that there were

various tribes across the north,

including the Cherokee, the Navajo, and

the Inuits. The Inuits are most likely

to have interacted with Leaf's fleet.

While back in Europe, in the holy city

of Jerusalem laid the very famous

church, the church of the holy sepulker.

According to Christian belief, this

church was built on the day Jesus was

crucified and resurrected. However, in

1009 AD, Arab Califf al-Hakim ordered

the destruction of this sacred holy

site. All of the sacred sites were

destroyed, leaving them completely

annihilated. When the news reached

Europe, Christians were horrified. Pope

Sergius IV sent a circular letter to all

churches calling for a holy fight in the

Middle East and the expulsion of Muslims

from the Holy

Land. But yet, the Arabs of the Abbised

Caliphate would actually be expelled by

another before Jerusalem. The Seljic

Turks, a central Asian Turk people of

the Muslim faith, were beginning to grow

their empire. In 1055 they took over the

abbiscided caliphate capital city of

Baghdad. The Seljic Turks initially

respected the caiff but the Seljixs took

over the city over time. In 1076 they

captured Medina followed the next year

by the capturing of Mecca, the holiest

city in Islam.

[Music]

Due to this, the Muslim world wasn't

ready for Pope Urban II at the Council

of Claremont in 1095 to call upon all

Christians to take up arms and liberate

the Holy Land from Muslim rule. The Pope

promised spiritual rewards and

forgiveness of sins to those who joined

the crusade, and many knights, nobles,

and peasants were inspired to take up

the cause. Many European nobles such as

Godfrey of Bullan to lose Bohem of

Toronto and Robert of Flanders brought

their armies from Europe on their

journey to Jerusalem. While the

Christians were united, the Muslims were

divided and unable to put up a strong

defense against the crusaders. Hence,

the Christians took over the county of

Adessa in 1098 and finally the holy city

of Jerusalem in 1099.

However, the crusade wasn't done. In

1144, the Muslim forces led by Turkish

ruler Ahmad Adenzingi launched a siege

against Adessa. The city was poorly

defended and the crusaders could not

resist the Muslim forces for long. After

a siege of several weeks, the city was

breached and the Muslim forces overran

the city, killing or enslaving much of

the population. But the Christians

weren't happy with that. So in 1147 the

massive armies of Europe came back with

attempts to free Adessa. The crusaders

faced significant logistical challenges

including shortages of food and

supplies. They were also plagued by

infighting and political rivalries which

called the campaign to be in ruin after

the disastrous loss of the battle of

Anob in 1149 which resulted in the

capture of King Louis VI and the loss of

much of the crusader

army. While the Christians and Muslims

were fighting, the Hindus in the Camar

Empire under King Surya II built a

fantastic temple for the Hindu god

Vishnu called the Ankor Watt. Vishnu is

an important god in Hinduism known as

the preserver and protector of the

universe. He has 10 incarnations or

avatars and is often depicted as having

blue skin and holding four objects. As

you approach Ankorwatt, you are greeted

by a massive moat and a grand entrance

gate adorned with intricate carvings of

mythological creatures and deities. The

main temple rises like a towering

mountain with intricate carvings and

reliefs that tell the stories of Hindu

mythology and the history of the Chimera

Empire. The temple's galleries are lined

with stunning bass reliefs depicting

scenes of battles, ceremonies, and daily

life in ancient Cambodia. At the heart

of the complex is the central sanctuary,

a massive pyramid-like structure

surrounded by smaller temples and

courtyards. The sanctuary is considered

the most sacred part of the temple

adorned with intricately carved statues

and images of Hindu gods and goddesses.

It was an incredible feat of human

ingenuity. But yet in 1187, the Muslim

commander from Egypt, Saladine, became

fed up with the Christian rule of

Jerusalem. So he declared a holy war

across the Muslim world in order to

reconquer Jerusalem from the Christians.

The battle occurred on a scorching hot

day in the hills near the Sea of

Galilee. Saladine's forces numbered

around 20,000. The crusaders had a much

smaller force of around 12,000 knights,

soldiers, and civilians under the aptly

named king, King Guy. The battle began

with skirmishes between the two sides,

but soon escalated into a fullscale

engagement. Saladine's forces could use

their superior cavalry to encircle the

crusaders, who could not break through

the Muslim lines. The heat and thirst

soon took a toll on the crusaders, who

were weakened and disoriented. The

Muslim forces took advantage of the

situation. They launched a fierce

attack, breaking through the crusader

lines and capturing many knights. King

Guy and a small group of knights were

able to escape the battlefield. Still,

the majority of the crusader army was

destroyed. The loss of the battle was a

severe blow to the Christian forces in

the region, and it paved the way for

Saladine's conquest of Jerusalem.

But the Christians weren't going to

allow that. So guess what happened?

Another crusade. This time the three

most powerful monarchs at the time,

Emperor Frederick I of the Holy Roman

Empire, King Richard I of England and

King Philip II of France, sent their

best armies to reconquer the Holy City

of Jerusalem. However, all the force in

the world couldn't retake Jerusalem from

the grips of Saladine, leaving the Third

Crusade to be a

failure. Genghis was born to a mother

kidnapped by his father and forced into

marriage. Legend holds that he came into

this world clutching a blood clot in his

right hand. Before he turned 10, his

father was poisoned to death by an enemy

clan. Genghis' clan then deserted him,

his mother, and his six siblings to

avoid having to feed them. However, he

soon began to make friends with the

other clans throughout the Mongolian

mountainside. By 1206, he had united all

the various tribes, uniting 1 million

people. For the time, Genis was quite

progressive. He made it illegal to sell

and kidnap women, banished the idea of

enslavement of any Mongol, and even

allowed freedom of religion. When it

came to war, though, Genghis was as

barbaric as the next one. His first

campaign was against the Shisha Kingdom

in 129. His army of mostly cavalry men

on horses quickly outnumbered and

destroyed the kingdom. His next target

was the Xin dynasty in China. From 1211

to 1214, the outnumbered Mongols ravaged

the countryside, causing food shortages,

resulting in the Xinn Army killing tens

of thousands of their own peasants just

so their elites could live. In 1214, the

Mongols besieged the capital of Zongu,

now Beijing, and burnt it to the ground.

In the early 13th century, King Jon was

facing increasing pressure from his

barrens who were demanding greater

rights and protections under the law. In

response to their demands, Jon agreed to

meet with the barrens and negotiate a

settlement. The result of these

negotiations was the Magna Carta, a

document that set out a series of rights

and freedoms that the king could not

violate. Among these rights were the

right to a fair trial, the right to due

process of law, and the right to be

protected from arbitrary arrest and

imprisonment. The Magna Carta also

established the principle of habius

corpus, which required the government to

produce a prisoner in court and provide

a lawful reason for their detention.

This principle has been a cornerstone of

modern legal systems around the world.

Then in 1217, there was another crusade.

This time led by King Andrew II of

Hungary and Duke Leopold V 6th of

Austria with the same goal in mind to

take over Jerusalem. The crusaders

successfully captured the city of

Dametta in 1219, but they could not

advance further into Egypt. After a

series of setbacks, including capture

and imprisonment of many crusaders, the

Christian forces were forced to abandon

their campaign in Egypt. The crusaders

eventually agreed to a treaty with the

Muslim forces, allowing them to leave

Egypt unharmed, but without achieving

their ultimate

goal. Genghaskhan wasn't done, though.

in 1219 went to war against the Quzam

Empire in present-day Turk Manistan,

Usbekiststan, Afghanistan, and Iran.

During his raids, the Mongol hordes

swept through one city after another,

taking over the likes of Burkara,

Samarind, and Arjench. Skilled workers

such as carpenters and jewelers were

usually saved, while aristocrats and

resisting soldiers were killed.

Unskilled workers, meanwhile, were often

used as human shields during the next

assault. No one knows with any certainty

how many people died during

Genghaskhan's wars, in part because the

Mongols propagated their vicious image

as a way of spreading terror. At

Genghaskhan's death, he controlled a

massive territory from the Sea of Japan

to the Caspian Sea. However, even more

impressively, around 8% of the men in

South Asia descend from Genghask Khan

today. In 1228, Emperor Frederick II of

the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer

the Holy Land, but failed, ending the

Sixth Crusade. Of course, the Holy Roman

Empire couldn't be the only one

crusading. King Louis the 9inth of

France in 1248 decided to start the

seventh crusade to retake Jerusalem but

he was taken prisoner by the Muslims and

forced to pay a hefty ransom as he

retreated. However, that didn't deter

King Louis the 9th because in 1270 he

was at it again trying to free Jerusalem

from the grips of Muslim rule but this

time he died of dysentery. Once King

Louis the 9inth died, his troops

retreated, creating the eighth and final

time there was a

crusade in England. Though in 1295,

England was making a diplomatic headway.

In a letter summoning Parliament, King

Edward I wrote, "Since the most

righteous law of the emperors ordains

that what touches all should be approved

by all, so it appears that common

dangers should be met by remedies agreed

upon in common." As King Edward, I would

then request a tenth of the incomes of

nobles and an 11th of the income of

knights, creating one of the first

parliaments we would see in the new

age. While down in Africa, a leader of

extravagant wealth, Mansam Musa, was

gaining power on his famous Haj, a

religious Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca

that every Muslim should make at least

once in his life. Mansam Musa with his

caravan of camels and an army of

scholars gave vast amounts of gold to

any poor person he saw. Hence crashing

all of the economies in northern Africa

due to the inflation of gold. When

Mansam Musa returned to Mali, he made it

his life purpose to make Timbuktu the

Muslim capital of knowledge. So Mansam

Musa invested heavily in building the

University of Sor. Various Islamic faith

scholars quickly made their way to Sanor

to study Islamic theology, law and

literature with over 1 million

manuscripts. Mansamusa was also a very

religious man with a policy that he

commissioned a new mosque every Friday.

However, sadly though, only the

Jingerabber mosque in Timbuktu stood the

test of time.

In the Americas though, another built on

riches was being created. As Aztec

legend has it, the god Weeds poachi

directed them to build where they saw an

eagle perched on a cactus eating a

snake. When they saw this exact scene on

an island located in what was once Lake

Texoko, they interpreted it as a sign

from their god and founded Tenno Chidlan

on that island. As time passed,

Tenochidlon started to build impressive

temples such as the great temple. The

great temple comprised of two main

structures dedicated to the gods

Wheatilapoi and Lelay. The city itself

was most fascinating. It was designed

with a complex system of canals and

causeways to help control flooding and

facilitate transport across the city.

while they started to farm on floating

gardens known as chinampas on the

shallow waters of Lake Tex Cocoa which

were used to grow crops such as maize

beans and

squash. As Mali and the Aztecs were

building their cities, England and

France were in war for 100 years. The

origins of the conflict lay with the

status of the duche of Gaen. In basic

capitalistic terms, this was owned by

the British crown. However, the land

itself was in France. The second reason

was that the last direct descendant of

Charlemagne, King Charles IV, died in

1328. So, the next closest relative was

Edward III, the king of England. So,

King Edward III claimed the rule of

France in

1337, which was not liked by the French

people. As the petty, erratic hundred

years war raged on, the people of the

world had to face a pandemic like no

other, the bubanic plague. As the

Italian poet Giovani Bokeacio wrote, "At

the beginning of the malady, certain

swellings either on the groin or under

the armpits waxed to the bigness of a

common apple, others to the size of an

egg, some more and some less, and these

the vulgar named plague boils."

Historians believe this pandemic was

spread by rats traveling through ships

across Europe and merchants throughout

the Silk Road. No matter how this plague

was produced, around 75 to 200 million

people died. With the death of so many

people, especially the poor, land owners

and nobles were required to allow

farmers to keep more of the product they

farmed, leading to more workers

rights. In China though, a group of

rebels known as the Red Turbans revolted

against the Mongol rulers of China. The

Red Turbans were led by a man named Zu

Yen Jang. Born into a poor peasant

family, Zu built a strong following

among the rebel forces and eventually

emerged as their leader. In

1368, Zu declared himself emperor and

established the Ming dynasty, marking

the beginning of a new era in Chinese

history.

In 1428 at the age of 16, Joan left her

home in the village of Dommy and

traveled to the court of Charles IIth

where she asked for permission to lead

the French army against the English. At

first, her request was met with

skepticism and disbelief. Still, Joan

persisted and eventually won the support

of the French commanders. Joan's first

major military victory came in the siege

of Orleans in 1429. She led the French

troops in a series of daring attacks on

the English forces and she broke the

siege and liberated the city. This

victory boosted French morale and helped

to turn the tide of the war in their

favor. Over the next several months,

Joan led the French army to victories

against the English, including the

Battle of Pate in June 1429.

However, her success also made her

enemies in the English and French court.

In 1430, she was captured by the English

and put on trial for heresy and

witchcraft. Joan was subjected to a

grueling trial. She was accused of

various crimes, including dressing in

men's clothing, practicing sorcery, and

hearing voices. Despite the odds against

her, Joan remained steadfast in her

faith and her belief that she was

carrying out God's will. In the end,

Joan was found guilty and sentenced to

death by burning at stake. She was

executed on May 30th,

1431 at 19. Then 20 years later in the

battle of Castellian, Charles IIIth of

France led a French army which defeated

the English army, effectively ending

English territorial claims in

France. While back in the great city of

Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire was

declining, weakened by years of war,

political instability, and economic

turmoil. In contrast, the Ottoman Empire

led by Sultan Memed II was on the rise

and the Sultan saw an opportunity to

expand his empire and gain control of

the strategic city of Constantinople. By

1453, Memed II led an army of 80,000

soldiers, including elite Janisary

troops and a powerful artillery force to

besiege Constantinople. The Byzantine

defenders, led by Emperor Constantine XI

11th, were vastly outnumbered and

outgunned. They faced a seemingly

impossible task to hold off the Ottoman

assault. The Ottomans bombarded the city

with artillery for nearly 2 months,

causing extensive damage to the walls

and fortifications. The Byzantine

defenders, meanwhile, struggled to

maintain morale and keep their troops

fed and supplied. Then on the fateful

day, May 29th, 1453, the Ottomans

launched a massive assault on the city.

Climbing up covered by siege towers,

they were able to breach the walls and

gain access to the city. Despite putting

up a valiant defense, the Byzantine

defenders were overwhelmed, and the

Ottomans were able to storm the city and

capture the capital, causing the great

Byzantine Empire to fall. In

1453, all paths no longer led to Rome

and all traces back to the Empire of

Caesar were erased. It was replaced by

the beginning of utter Ottoman

domination in the region, ushering in a

new era of Turkish power and influence

in the

Mediterranean. While the Byzantines

might have been falling, the Russians

were finally gaining their independence.

At the time, the Mongol Empire was

ruling over Russia, demanding that

various Russian towns pay tribute or

face the wrath of the Mongols. However,

in 1472, Ivan the Great refused to pay

such tribute. Over the next several

years, he built up his military strength

and was able to drive out the Mongol

garrisons from various cities and towns

throughout Russia. In 1480, the Mongols

demanded that Ivan pay tribute or face

military action. But after a tense

standoff, they finally retreated. Ivan's

victory was the beginning of a free

Russia and the decline of the Mongolian

Empire. Then in 1492, as Christopher

Columbus sailed, the ocean blue, the

Europeans discovered the new world. set

initially on finding a path to India.

Instead, he landed on an island in the

Bahamas, which he aptly named San

Salvador. When he and his crew set up

camp, he met the Lucayians, skilled

fishermen and farmers, who welcomed him

and his crew and provided them with food

and

supplies. While back in Europe, a golden

age of culture was upon us. In 1503,

Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa.

Da Vinci's biographer Walter Isacson

says, "The Mona Lisa to me is the

greatest emotional painting ever done.

The way the smile flickers makes it a

work of art and science because Leonardo

understood optics, the muscles of the

lips, and how light strikes the eye. All

of it goes into making the Mona Lisa's

smile so mysterious and elusive." In

1504, Michelangelo sculpted David.

Michelangelo would say, "In every block

of marble, I see a statue as plain as

though it stood before me, shaped and

perfect in attitude and action. I have

only to he away the rough walls that

imprison the lovely apparition to reveal

it to the other eyes as mine see it."

While in 1506, Michelangelo was painting

the magnificent painting of the cyine

chapel. While in the political world,

Nicolo Makavelli is one of, if not the

most influential pieces of literature we

have today. The prince is a political

manifesto that comments on the past

civilizations we've heard about. In this

video, Mchavelli writes, "It is much

safer to be feared than loved because

love is preserved by the link of

obligation, which owing to the beastness

of men is broken at every opportunity

for their advantage. But fear preserves

you by a dread of punishment which never

fails. Think about the ordinary farmer.

Think about the man who spends

generations of their life farming,

giving heavy taxes to a noble lord for

doing nothing except protecting them.

Why won't the farmers rebel? It's

because they're afraid of what would

happen without their leaders. Without

the elites, the Huns or the Mongols can

come to your farm and destroy you on

their own. So, you live in fear as to

what might happen to you, leaving you to

give your wheat to said leader.

[Music]

Martin Luther though didn't just report

on the basics of human nature. Martin

wanted to make a difference and was sick

of the Catholic Church. At the time, the

Catholic Church was selling indulgences,

which were certificates that people

could purchase to reduce the amount of

time they would spend in purgatory after

they died. Luther believed this practice

was corrupt and went against the Bible's

teachings which emphasized the

importance of repentance and faith over

material wealth. In protest, he wrote a

series of 95 thesis or arguments

challenging the church's authority and

calling for reform. On October 31st,

1517, Luther nailed his 95 thesis to the

door of the castle church in Wittenberg,

which was a common way of announcing a

public debate or discussion. Luther's 95

thesis sparked a debate within the

church and among European scholars and

theologians. Some people agreed with his

criticisms of the church, while others

saw him as a heretic and a threat to the

established order. The beginning of

Protestantism was upon

[Music]

us. In 1519 though, the Spanish

concistadors under the leadership of

Hernand Cortez arrived on the Aztec

shores. They were greeted by the Aztecs

who gave gifts of gold and silver of

incredible wealth to the Spanish as they

believed that the Spaniards were

emissaries of the god Ketzel Colottel.

However, Cortez soon revealed his true

intentions to conquer the Aztec Empire

and claim its wealth for Spain. Over

several years, Cortez and his forces

engaged in a series of battles with the

Aztecs. Marked by intense violence and

brutality, the Spanish were aided by

their superior military technology,

including guns and cannons, and by the

support of indigenous allies, who were

the enemies of the Aztecs. Despite being

vastly outnumbered, Cortez and his men

made significant gains against the

Aztecs. Eventually laying siege to their

capital city of Tinoidlon. After months

of fighting, the city fell to the

Spanish in 1521 and the Aztec Empire was

effectively destroyed. Then following

the strategy of Cortez, Francisco

Pizarro led an expedition that conquered

the Incan Empire in present-day Peru.

Though the violence was authoritarian,

the biohazards were even more demanding.

The Europeans, due to having survived

illnesses such as the bubanic plague and

smallpox, developed immunity to many of

these diseases that they've one way or

another spread to the native people,

essentially over time killing them off.

Under Sullean the Magnificent's

leadership, the Ottoman Empire became

one of the most powerful and influential

empires in world history. Sullean was a

brilliant strategist and military leader

and his reign was marked by significant

conquests and political achievements.

Like many other leaders, he set out to

conquer the world. By the end of his

reign, Sullean the Magnificent presided

over a vast empire that stretched from

southeastern Europe to the deserts of

Arabia and from the shores of the

Mediterranean to the plains of Persia.

His conquests included the capture of

Belgrade in Budapest in Europe,

Jerusalem and Mecca in the Middle East,

and Tabri and Baghdad in Persia. The

Ottomans also became the dominant naval

power in the Mediterranean with control

over North African cities such as Alers

and Tunis creating the dominant Ottoman

[Music]

civilization. But yet all things fall

when one is in love. And the murderhappy

King Henry had fallen in love with Anne

Boland and was desperate to marry her.

However, Katherine of Aragon was still

alive and the Catholic Church did not

recognize divorce. Henry's solution was

to break away from the Catholic Church

and established the Church of England

with himself as the head. In 1534, Henry

passed the Act of Supremacy, which

declared that the king, not the Pope,

was the supreme head of the Church of

England, leaving the Catholic Church to

be angry and excommunicate Henry VIIth,

leaving a schism between the Church of

England and the Catholic Church even

today. Ivan the Terrible is now the

ruler of Russia. In the early years of

his reign, Ivan enjoyed significant

success, launching military campaigns

against neighboring kingdoms and

expanding Russia's borders. He also

oversaw the construction of magnificent

public works, including St. Basil's

Cathedral in

Moscow. However, as Ivan grew older, he

became increasingly paranoid and

erratic. He launched a series of brutal

purges and executions, targeting anyone

he perceived as threatening his power.

He also had a volatile temper, lashing

out at advisers and nobles who dared to

question his decisions. In 1560, Ivan

suffered a devastating personal loss

when his beloved wife Anastasia died.

This event seems to have triggered a

significant psychological breakdown and

Ivan became increasingly unstable and

violent. He launched a series of bloody

campaigns against his own people,

including the notorious Opri Nina, a

campaign of terror and repression that

killed thousands of Russians and

destroyed countless homes and families.

Truly deserving of the name terrible.

While Russia was going through that,

England was on the rise with the start

of the English Renaissance under the

leadership of Queen Elizabeth I.

Elizabeth and playwrights dominated the

scene, creating written words that were

poetic in language and poignant in

meeting. They've even written plays

about people we've already talked about.

William Shakespeare wrote many plays

including histories. Julius Caesar which

was about the assassination of Julius

Caesar, King John which was about the

Hundred Years War and Henry VIIIth was a

play about showing human needs to gain

power. Other notable playwrights who

filled the scene were Christopher Marlo,

Ben Johnson and John

Webster. While on the other side of the

world, the English colony of Jamestown

was forming in Virginia under the

Virginia Trading Company. Slightly up

north, Samuel de Champlain was

establishing the French colony of Quebec

[Music]

Canada. While back in the old world,

they were having a new era of fighting,

the 30 Years War. This time it was

between the Protestants and the

Catholics. It began in 1618 when the

Holy Roman Emperor attempted to impose

Catholicism on the Protestant population

of Bohemia. The Bohemians rebelled and

soon the conflict spread throughout the

region. Over the next 30 years, armies

marched and counter marched across

Europe, leaving a trail of destruction

and devastation. The war was

characterized by brutal sieges, bloody

battles, and atrocities committed by

both sides. At its height, the war

involved most of the major powers of

Europe, including France, Spain, Sweden,

and the Holy Roman Empire. It was fought

along religious, political, and economic

lines, with each side vying for

dominance and control. The war finally

ended in 1648 with the signing of the

peace of West Failia. The treaty

recognized the Dutch Republic's

independence, established the individual

state sovereignty within the Holy Roman

Empire, and ended the religious

conflicts that fueled the

[Music]

war. While in China, the Ming court was

plagued by corruption, factionalism, and

economic decline. The emperor at the

time, Chongzen, faced mounting pressure

from his advisers to strengthen the

military and defend against the Manchu

threat. However, his efforts were

hindered by infighting among officials

and a lack of resources. In 1644, the

Manchu army led by Prince Dorgon

launched a massive invasion of China.

The Ming army, weakened by years of

neglect and corruption, was no match for

the highly disciplined and skilled

Manchu forces. The Manchus quickly

conquered Beijing and installed their

puppet emperor, ending the Ming dynasty,

continuing the cycle of dynasties in

China. While in Spain, King Charles II

died without having any heirs, creating

a real political crisis of who should be

the leader. King Louis I 14th of France

supported his grandson Philillip as the

rightful heir to the Spanish throne

hoping to secure French influence over

Spain and its territories. On the other

hand, Emperor Liupold I of Austria

supported the candidacy of Archduke

Charles, a member of the Habsburg

dynasty who was seen as a potential ally

against French expansionism. The

conflict soon escalated into a major war

with many European powers taking sides

and forming alliances. The principal

belligerent were France and Spain

against a coalition of Austria, Great

Britain, the Dutch Republic, Portugal,

and several other minor powers. The war

ended with the treaty of Utrect in

1713 which recognized Philip as king of

Spain but required him to renounce any

claims to the French throne and seed

some territories to Great Britain and

Austria. The Treaty of Rastat signed the

following year officially ended the

[Music]

war. In 1707, the acts of the union were

passed by the parliaments of England and

Scotland, which united the two kingdoms

into a single political entity known as

Great Britain, hence creating the legal

foothold that is Great Britain. However,

Scotland took a disliking to this. There

were protests and uprisings in the years

following the Union, including the

Jacobite risings of 1715 and

1745, which aimed to restore the

Scottish monarchy and independence.

[Music]

Then on July 4th,

1776, a group of American patriots stood

in a room in Philadelphia signing a

document that would say the words, "We

hold these truths to be self-evident,

that all men are created equal, that

they are endowed by their creator with

certain unalienable rights, that among

these are life, liberty, and the pursuit

of happiness. War in the Americas was

on.

But back in Europe, the tone was quite

different. Adam Smith published the

famous book, The Wealth of Nations: The

Foundations of Lz's Fair Economics,

which essentially says the market would

balance itself out over time. In

Austria, Mosart was performing his

magnumopus, the Hafner Serenade.

Mosart's Hafner Serenade is a charming

and elegant work featuring courtly dance

music and light lyrical melodies. Its

graceful melodies, subtle harmonies, and

elegant instrumental writing

characterize

[Music]

it. As the war continued, King George

III sent his armies of the masses over

to America. Though the colonists had

little military training, their

knowledge of the terrain and guerilla

tactics made them nearly invisible. At

the same time, the Red Army coats were

easy to see for the Americans. In the

summer of 1781, George Washington and

French General Rosh Shambo marched their

forces south to Virginia, where they

laid siege to Cornwallis and his army at

Yorktown. The British were trapped and

could not escape by land or sea. The

siege dragged on for weeks. The American

and French forces bombarded the British

with artillery. They dug trenches to

inch their way closer to the British

defensive, the French Navy defeated the

British Navy in a crucial naval battle

off the coast of Virginia. Cutting off

Cornwallis's only escape route by sea.

On October 14th, 1781, the American and

French forces launched a massive assault

on the British defenses. The British

fought valiantly, but were vastly

outnumbered and outgunned, and they soon

began to falter. On October 19th,

Cornwallis surrendered his army to

Washington, effectively ending the war.

The victory at Yorktown was a decisive

moment in the war, and it marked the end

of British rule in America and the

beginning of a new

[Music]

experiment. With America finally being

free from the totally tyrannical grips

of Britain, they had one issue. How were

they going to lead? Were they going to

make General George Washington their

monarch? Therefore, democracy was

chosen. However, Plato made a good point

many years ago that the common man was

incapable and not wise enough to pick a

better leader to lead them to success.

So the American founded constitutional

convention came up with this idea of the

electoral college where the common man

would vote for a particular person who

would then have a say in who could be

president. So instead of the president

being directly voted on by the people,

they would vote on elites who would then

vote for the president directly.

The French then noticed how well the

American Revolution went. At the time,

the French were ruled by King Louis V

16th and his wife, Queen Marie

Antuinette. As Queen Marie Antwanette

told the peasants, "Let them eat cake."

The people of France got together. They

decided they wanted more say in how the

country was run. and they formed a group

called the National Assembly and started

making new laws to give them more

rights. One of the most famous events of

the French Revolution was the storming

of the Bastile. This was a prison that

represented the king's power and the

people wanted to show that they were not

afraid of him. They broke into the

prison and freed the prisoners which

started a revolution throughout France.

Many influential people lost their heads

during the revolution, including King

Louis V 16th and his wife, Queen Marie

Antuinette. The people were tired of

being ruled by a king and queen who

didn't care about them, and they wanted

to create a new system where everyone

would have a say, and the people of

France voted in Maximleian Robes Pierre.

In 1789, Rose Pierre was elected as a

delegate to the estates general, which

was convened to address France's

financial crisis. He quickly emerged as

a leading voice in the National

Assembly, advocating for the ordinary

people's rights and opposing the

aristocracy's power. As the revolution

continued though, Robes Pierre became

increasingly radical in his views.

Advocating for the execution of King

Louis V 16th and the establishment of a

republic, he was elected to the powerful

committee of public safety in

1793. Tasked with protecting the

revolution and rooting out enemies of

the state. Under Robes Pierre's

leadership, the committee launched a

period of intense repression known as

the reign of terror. Thousands of people

were arrested, tried, and executed for

crimes against the revolution. Robes

Pierre became known as a ruthless and

uncompromising figure. However, Robes

Pierre's power began to wne as the

people grew tired of the violence and

the instability of the revolution. In

1794, he was arrested and imprisoned

along with his closest allies. On July

28th,

1794, Robespierre was taken to the

guillotine and

executed. The execution marked the end

of the reign of terror and democracy for

now in France. Instead, they moved to a

directory. A directory is a government

led by a five member executive council

known as the directory which was chosen

by the council of elders. This

legislative body was also part of the

new government. The directory was meant

to serve as a moderating force balancing

the interests of the various factions

that had emerged during the

revolution. However, the directory

concept wasn't successful as well. So,

General Napoleon Bonapart decided to

overthrow the government and begin his

conquests to take over the

world. So, off Napoleon went to conquer

much of Europe. In 1805, Napoleon

defeated a combined Austro-Russian army

at the Battle of Ostlitz, solidifying

his position as one of Europe's most

powerful leaders. He then conquered much

of the continent, including Spain,

Portugal, and the Netherlands. In 1812,

Napoleon invaded Russia with a massive

army. Still, the campaign proved

disastrous and his forces were decimated

by the harsh Russian winter. The defeat

marked the beginning of Napoleon's

downfall. In 1814, the European powers

allied against Napoleon and invaded

France, forcing him to abdicate his

throne and go into exile on the island

of Elba. However, he returned to France

in 1815 in what became known as the 100

days and briefly regained power before

being defeated by the British and

Prussian armies at the Battle of

Waterlue. While back in the Americas,

Simone Bolivar was on his military

campaigns to free Latin American

countries from the grasp of the Spanish

colonial rule. Believar began his

military campaigns in Venezuela in 1810

where he led a successful uprising

against the Spanish colonial

authorities. He then moved on to

Colombia where he won a series of

important victories against the Spanish

including the battle of Boyaka in 1819

which secured the independence of

Colombia. Bolavar then turned his

attention to Ecuador and Peru where he

won a series of decisive battles that

helped secure both countries

independence. He captured the city of

Lima in

1824 effectively ending Spanish control

of Peru. Bolivar's final military

campaign was in Bolivia where he led the

fight for independence against the

Spanish in 1825. Bolivia was named in

honor of Bolivar who played a critical

role in its

[Music]

liberation. In 1848, two men had an idea

that would spark debate worldwide. Karl

Marx and Frederick Engles wrote the book

called the Communist Manifesto which is

a book about the idea of communism where

instead of a capitalistic system where

the nobles or bgeoa own everything and

the workers and proletariats work for

slave wages instead what if the

proletariats own the means of production

and all work together as Markx and

Engles would write let the ruling

classes tremble at a communistic

revolution

The proletarians would have nothing to

lose but their chains and they have and

they'd to win. They would also write the

need for a constantly expanding market

for its products chases the bourgeoisi

over the whole surface of the globe. It

must nestle everywhere, settle

everywhere, establish connections

everywhere. Right after the writing of

the Communist Manifesto began a period

in Europe known as the scramble for

Africa, it all began in the 1870s when

European countries began to explore the

interior of Africa, looking for new

territories to claim and resources to

exploit. At first, the European powers

were cautious, sending explorers and

missionaries into Africa to establish

trade networks and alliances with local

leaders. However, as competition

increased, the European powers became

more aggressive in their tactics. They

used military force to establish

colonies and protectorates, and they

engaged in diplomatic maneuvering and

propaganda campaigns to gain the support

of local populations. One of the most

ruthless tactics the European powers

used was dividing Africa into artificial

borders and creating new ethnic and

linguistic divisions. This created

tensions and conflicts between different

African groups which the Europeans used

to their advantage creating a European

stronghold over the continent of Africa

to increase their profits. The scramble

for Africa came to an end as a result of

several factors including changing

international politics, economic

realities, and rising African

nationalism. One of the key factors that

contributed to the end of the scramble

for Africa was the changing balance of

power in Europe. By the early 20th

century, European powers were

increasingly focused on competition with

each other, particularly in Europe

itself and were less interested in

acquiring new colonies in Africa. This

was due in part to the growing tensions

between European powers that would

eventually lead to the outbreak of World

War I in

1914. Because on June 28th, 1914, a shot

was heard around the world with the

assassination of Archduke France

Ferdinand. France Ferdinand was the heir

to the throne of Austria Hungary and his

assassination by a Serbian nationalist

named Gabrielo Princip sparked a

diplomatic crisis that quickly escalated

into a global conflict. In the aftermath

of the assassination, AustriaHungary

declared war on Serbia, triggering a

complex web of alliances and treaties

that drew other countries into the

conflict. Germany, an ally of

AustriaHungary, declared war on Russia

and France, while Great Britain, which

had a treaty with Belgium, declared war

on Germany. Within weeks, most of Europe

was embroiled in a brutal and

devastating conflict. In November 1918,

after four years of brutal fighting, the

Allied powers and the central powers

agreed to an armistice, effectively

bringing an end to the war and the

demise of the Ottoman Empire. On

November 11th, the armistice went into

effect and the guns fell silent across

Europe.

World War II. The peace was short-lived

because a man named Adolf Hitler invaded

Poland. Like Alexander the Great, Julius

Caesar, Trejan, Attilla the Hun,

Genghask Khan, Napoleon Bonapart, and

Sullean the Great, Adolf Hitler wanted

to establish an empire for his nation

and his people. Adolf had dreams of

building an empire larger than anything

that was ever created. He wanted to make

the Roman Empire look like nothing.

However, for the sake of the world and

especially those Hitler viewed as

undesirable vermin. In April

1945, Soviet forces began a massive

assault on Berlin. After weeks of

intense fighting, the city fell on May

2nd and German forces surrendered.

Meanwhile, Allied forces were closing in

from the west. And on May 7th, Germany

signed an unconditional surrender,

officially ending the war in Europe. A

few months later, after the bombings of

Nagasaki and Hiroshima, Japan

surrendered as well, leaving the war to

be over.

[Music]

From World War II on, the world has

faced a technological revolution. With

Alan Turing's invention of the computer

during the war, the world became global.

For 50 years, America and the Soviet

Union were at war. despite the fact that

they were on two totally different

continents. In 1969, Neil Armstrong

landed on the moon, saying, "That's one

small step for

man, one giant leap for mankind."

As the years on the world has become

increasingly smaller, computers have

become more affordable. Cell phones

changed the way we communicated with one

another. Let's go back to the story of a

man named Gilgamesh on his quest for

immortality. At the end of the poem,

Gilgamesh realizes life which you look

for, you will never find. For when gods

created man, they let death be his share

and life withheld in their own hands.

The history of human civilizations is an

incomplete book, constantly being

updated. Some things will never change.

However, humans will always die. Empires

will always rise and fall. The masses

will always clamor towards safety.

Transcript

The history of our story began long

ago. At one point in time around 3

billion years ago, we were floating

around as little tiny atoms in the

little petri dish of the world. Fast

forward to around 6 million years ago,

and we see the emergence of the first

hominids, the family of primates that

include humans. 1.9 million years ago,

Homo erectus was the first species to

leave Africa and colonize other parts of

the world. They had larger brains than

their primate

ancestors. Around 400,000 years ago, the

first evidence of the Neanderthalss.

Their bodies were adapted to the cold

environments of Europe and Western Asia.

Their distinctive facial features were

some of the most humanlike ever seen.

Then came us, the only surviving species

of the homogeneous. But how did homo

sapiens rise into a global dominance?

Through the mechanism of

[Music]

civilization. We begin our story in the

fertile lands of Mesopotamia in 4,000

B.CE. Nestled between the great Tigris

and Euphrates rivers and the Sumerian

city of Uric. Instead of relying on

hunting and gathering like our ancestors

of the past, the citizens of Uric were

able to develop a way to harvest cereal

grains like wheat and barley. However,

turning cereal grains into edible foods

took a lot of work. In the beginning,

they had to use an invention called a

handmill which consisted of two stones.

As the grains were crushed between the

two stones, the flour was collected in a

container and stored for future use.

This was the start of something great.

This complex, strenuous process was our

modern world's first example of

agriculture. We no longer depended on

hunting animals or picking berries for

our food. Rather than using human

ingenuity, we can create our own food

source. This allowed Eric to prosper

into a place with over 50,000 residents.

However, this change did have a change

on the human body. The average height of

men drastically shrunk from 5'9 to 5'3.

And for women, they shrunk on average

from 5'3 to 5 ft. Instead of being the

super athletes we were of the past, we

were smaller, less noticeable farmers.

People also became landlocked, changing

the very essence of what it means to be

human. In the early 3000 B.CE. According

to legend, King Gilgamesh began his rule

as a Sumerian king of his region.

However, by the end of 3000 B.CE, the

Acadians ousted the Sumerianss. Sargon

the Great took power and conquered all

of Sumeriia.

While in the Indis Valley in modern-day

Pakistan, a new civilization was

growing. The Indis Valley civilization

3,300 to,300 B.CEE was most notable for

its highly advanced toilet system. The

toilets were built with a seat and a

chute that led to the underground

drainage system. The sewage was then

carried away from the homes through a

network of covered drains, preventing

disease spread. The waste was treated

and disposed outside of city limits,

helping to keep the cities clean and

hygienic. While in Egypt, they were more

consumed with building pyramids than

basic human plumbing. This was because

in ancient Egyptian religion, it was

believed that when a pharaoh was to die

in the physical world, his spirit would

continue to live on in the afterlife in

which they would continue to rule in

perpetuity and where they would be

worshiped by the living. Inside these

pyramids, the pharaoh's body was

carefully mummified, a process believed

to preserve his physical form and help

ensure his spirit's journey to the

afterlife. The pyramid was also filled

with offerings and treasures intended to

provide the pharaoh with the resources

he would need in the afterlife. Every

pharaoh wanted to make sure they were

immortal. They wanted to succeed in the

afterlife. They wanted to be worshiped

forever. That's why it was an utmost

priority for Egyptian pharaohs to build

pyramids for themselves when laid to

rest. It started when Pharaoh Joser 2667

to 2648 B.CE TE built the step pyramid

at Sakara followed by Nefpharu 2613 to

2589 B.CEE who built several pyramids

such as the bent pyramid and the red

pyramid. Then came the pharaoh Kufu 2589

to 2566 B.CE who built the famous Great

Pyramid of Giza in a laborintensive

20-year process, one that the world

still marvels at today. Kufu was then

followed by Pharaoh's Kafre and Menar

who built the slightly smaller second

and third pyramids of Giza

respectively. While over in China in the

year 2100 B.CEE the first Chinese

dynasty was upon us. Like the people of

Mesopotamia, the Chinese were ever

reliant on agriculture, producing rice,

wheat, and barley among other crops.

However, as legend has it, the Yellow

River flooded. These massive floods

would destroy all the crops, leading to

massive famine and suffering. However,

not all was to be lost because Yu, the

great was on his way. Yu was so

distraught by this problem that he would

spend his days traveling up and down the

Yellow River. He found ways to divert

the rivers by building levies and dikes

so that he could regulate the waterways.

Then after 13 years of hard work, the

floods could no longer wreak havoc on

the land. The people were overjoyed and

Yu was hailed as a savior. That was the

start of the first Chinese dynasty, the

Ja dynasty. Though the accuracy of this

tale is questioned by historians, it

does establish an important precedent.

The idea is that power ought to follow

one's merit. An individual who deserves

absolute power shall have absolute

power. This idea would shape the world

for years to come and cause the people

of ancient China to follow him to create

the first ever Chinese

[Music]

dynasty. While back over in Mesopotamia

around 1772 B.CE, E, a Babylonian king

named King Hammurabi created the basis

of the legal system as we know it today.

Hammurabi ordered the creation of a 7-ft

tall, 2- foot wide stone slab. Written

on it was a system of 282 laws that each

citizen of his kingdom was to follow.

Such laws included various laws such as

law one, if a man brings an accusation

against another man charging him with

murder but cannot prove it, the accuser

shall be put to death. Law 196, if a man

destroys the eye of another man, they

shall destroy his eye. Law 197 says, if

he breaks another man's bone, they shall

break it. Law 199. If he destroys the

eye of a man's slave or breaks the bone

of a man's slave, he shall pay 1/ half

his price. However, what King Hammurabi

did was create a society based on laws.

He laid out strict laws, placing people

into certain casts of life and value.

Everyone was worth a different amount

based on what class they were in

society. There was no illusion of

equality in ancient Babylon. Instead, it

was pretty clear the value of a noble's

bone was worth more than a plebeians,

which in turn was worth more than a

slaves, an idea we continue to see

throughout

history. While in modern-day Turkey, a

lesserknown civilization came to power,

the Hittites Empire under the

charismatic rule of the leader Learnis,

1680 to 1650 B.CE. CE. He was a skilled

ruler with a single vision in mind,

uniting the Hittite citystates under a

single rule. The Barnes led his army

from city to city, conquering

neighboring citystates and making

alliances with their leaders. He was a

shrewd diplomat and he used his

diplomatic skills to win over the hearts

and minds of the people. Eventually,

Learnas became the ruler of all the

Hittite citystates and established the

empire. He was a just and fair ruler and

was loved by his people. Under his rule,

the Hittites prospered and their

territory expanded, leaving them right

next to their neighbors in

Egypt. While in modern-day Greece, a

collection of citystates emerged on the

European continent. Mason Greece 1600

B.CE to 1100 B.CE De was dominated by an

elite warrior society and consisted of a

network of palace centered states that

developed rigid hierarchial political,

social, and economic systems. At the

head of this society was the king.

However, unlike a unified civilization,

each city was on its own. A city-state

is a city that with its surrounding

territory forms an independent state.

The development of citystates such as

Troy, Mysini, and Pilus start to grow.

The first remnants of the Greek written

language known as linear B also started

to emerge. The first record of any

Indo-Uropean Greek record we have today.

[Music]

While back in Egypt, they started to

create a social pyramid of another type,

the Egyptian social pyramid. Like the

Great Pyramid of Giza, it is more

prominent at the bottom and tinier at

the top. At the bottom lays the peasants

and the slaves. They were responsible

for doing all the manual labor. They

worked on the lands. They would spend

the day in and day out farming,

producing food for all of Egypt. Then

when the season to farm was over for the

year, they would work on the pharaoh's

massive building projects. Literally

building the

pyramids. Slightly above the slaves came

the artisans. They were the stonemasons,

the plasters, and the sculptors who

created the exuberant art the wealthy

desired and for Egypt is most known for

today. Then came the merchants who spent

their days navigating the Nile, trading

gold, papyrus, and linen to anyone who

could afford it. They were well

respected and able to make a healthy

profit by selling. Then came the

scribes. These masters of the world

would go to specialized scribe schools

just to master the language of ancient

Egyptian hieroglyphics. In practical

use, these scribes took account of the

stores of food, various tax documents,

and even the daily lives of the pharaoh.

After the scribes came the soldiers, the

soldiers were tasked with protecting the

Egyptian Empire. They dedicated their

lives to defend or make preemptive

strikes against their enemy. Generally,

they were wellfed. Then, near the top

came the bureaucrats. These highranking

government officials did essential tasks

at the top of society like the vazers

who ran the logistical tasks necessary

to run a civilization. The priests

oversaw taking care of the temples to

ensure the gods were well cared for. The

nobles oversaw specific regions of the

empire and kept order in said regions.

At the top, the purpose of everyone

below was the pharaoh, the king and the

mediator between the gods and the world

of men. The pharaohs will be known to be

supreme and all must succumb to it. When

the pharaoh dies, he will be buried in a

pyramid in which he will help eternally

rule over the Egyptian Empire. Egyptian

society was created to serve the

pharaoh. Taxes were taken from the

farmers for the pharaoh and artisans

made unique crafts for it. The merchants

ensured the pharaoh was well supplied

with the needed goods. The scribes would

follow the pharaoh and record his

thoughts. The soldiers made sure his

empire was protected. The bureaucrats

did the jobs the pharaoh couldn't do

while the pharaoh sat at the top and

communicated with the gods. Pharaoh

Ramsy's II 1279 to 1213 B.CE. CE

accomplished many extraordinary things

by living in this social system. He

orchestrated the construction of the

temple of Abu Symbol, the Ramisum and

the temple of Cararnac. He was also able

to grow the Egyptian Empire and

reconquer lands lost by other pharaohs

except for the land claimed by the

Hidife Empire.

[Music]

The Hittite king of the time, Matali II,

1295 to 1272 B.CEE, was notorious for

ordering his troops to attack his

Egyptian neighbors. Following the

example of Learnis, Matali wanted to

unify the world under Hittite rule.

However, Ramsy's had enough. Other

pharaohs in the past have tried to stop

the Hittites, but he knew if his empire

was to ever succeed, he needed to attack

back. His target is the city of Kadesh.

Ramsy's rode in on his chariot with four

divisions of 20,000 men ready to

dominate and kill Matali. However, the

Hittites already knew of the incoming

Egyptian invasion through espionage.

They fortified their city with 40,000 of

his own men. A war was about to

commence. Ramsy's decided to split up

his divisions to force Matali out, but

yet Matali never did. A gruesome

mistake. Splitting up his forces left

him exposed, unable to get an advantage,

allowing Matali and the people of Kadesh

a chance for victory. Historians believe

that all they did was come out from the

fortification of Kadesh and trap Ramsy's

II's forces in his army by the river.

But yet, for some unknown reason, they

never did, leaving the Battle of Kadesh

to end in a draw. After the battle

though, both sides decided it would be

best to stop attacking each other, that

they should live in peace and unity in

this world. Then after the death of

Matali, the new king Harusili III took

the throne of the Hittite Empire.

Through the means of messengers in the

year 1258 B.CEE, both Ramses and

Harusili signed the first peace treaty

to ever exist. Reading in part, Ramsy's

the great king, the king of the country

of Egypt, shall never attack the country

of Hadti to take possession of a part of

this country. and Haruseli the great

king of the country of Hadi shall never

attack the country of Egypt to take

possession of a part of that country.

Then a period of friendship occurred

between these two once waring nations.

The Hittites were skilled in metal work

and taught the Egyptians to make

superior weapons and tools. At the same

time, the Egyptians, master of

agriculture, shared their knowledge with

the Hittites. Trade for the benefit of

both civilizations. Both civilizations

prospered because of this. Peace can

lead to prosperity. The agreement was

kept in place until around 1,200 B.CE de

because that's when the Hittite Empire

fell because of the constant attacks

they faced from the sea people leaving

the Hittite Empire to be lost in the

state of

[Music]

history. While on a continent far away,

the first civilization in the Americas

was taking foot in modern-day Mexico.

Theme civilization 1200 B.CE to 400 B.CE

CE is often considered the mother

civilization of Native American

civilizations. However, sadly though,

not much is known about them, mainly due

to their writing in a hieroglyph

historians still can't decipher. One of

the few remains we have are these 17

colossal stone heads. In Mesoamerican

culture, there is this belief that the

head alone could contain an individual's

emotion, experience, and soul. We may

not know their leaders names like of

other civilizations like Ramsy's and

Hammurabi. When looking through the eyes

of a stone head, we can still feel their

presence. And in some ways, they remain

immortal, enshrined in history. For one

day, we may learn who they

[Music]

are. While in the east, the Zhao dynasty

1046 to 256 B.CE CE in China was taking

its stride. The Zhao dynasty gained

power because of the failures of the

less critical Shang dynasty. They

believed in the idea of a mandate from

heaven. This resulted in four principles

in the Chinese dynastical structure that

would be repeated repeatedly. One,

heaven grants the emperor the right to

rule. Two, since there is only one

heaven, there can only be one emperor at

any given time. Three, the emperor's

virtue determines his right to rule. And

four, no one dynasty has a permanent

right to rule. A ruler in dynasty could

lose the mandate from heaven. And the

heavens weren't always on the side of

the rulers. Over time, it will fade into

another dynasty. The heavens would send

signs of droughts, famines, floods, and

earthquakes across the land, signaling

they'd lost the blessing from above.

This is how the Shen dynasty fell and

the Zhao dynasty grew to prominence. The

Zhao dynasty brought another style of

government and the creation of

feudalism. The system was

straightforward leading to another

social pyramid. At the bottom lay the

peasants who were tied to the land and

whose job was to produce crops for the

empire. Then came the soldiers whose job

was to protect the lands from foreign

invaders. Then the lords who owned the

land and taxed the peasants a portion of

their crops who in turn the lord gave

some of their crops to the king. The

person in charge of the whole empire,

the king would then receive more crops

and become very wealthy. All profits go

to the king and all work goes to the

masses. Why would anyone just settle for

a life of farming day in and day out?

There are two reasons for this

phenomenon. The first reason was due to

necessity. It took many more people to

feed an empire and a family back then.

And the second reason being philosophy

towards the end of the Zhao dynasty, the

beginning of Eastern philosophy was

created. Confucious created a philosophy

system justly named Confucianism which

is focused on the importance of respect,

loyalty and responsibility in all

relationships in life. A central concept

of Confucianism is called Lee which can

be translated as rituals, customs or

manners. Lee refers to the formal and

informal social conventions that guide

societal behavior. It is seen as

maintaining order and harmony in social

relationships. While LaZee created

another philosophy called Towoism. The

word toao means the way or the path. And

toism teaches that individuals should

seek to align themselves with the

natural flow of the universe rather than

fighting against it. Live your life as

peacefully with yourself as possible and

don't worry about external things

outside your control. Just focus on your

farming. One of the most famous

contemporaries from Taoism is the idea

of yin and yang representing

complimentary and interdependent forces

in nature such as light and dark, hot

and cold or masculine and feminine.

Towoism teaches that by balancing these

opposing forces, individuals can achieve

harmony and fulfillment. Confucianism

and Taoism made life bearable for

ancient Chinese farmers.

[Music]

But as time progressed, the citystates

that occupied ancient Greece grew.

Around 800 B.CEE, the Greek city started

to realize that the land they occupied

was practically infertile. So to produce

an essential staple of grain, they had

to import it. Hence why the Greek states

had to colonize the world around them.

The citystate mletus at its height had

over 90 colonies throughout Europe

producing food for the Greeks. At its

height, the Greek had set up colonies

from modern-day Marseilles in France to

Rostavandon in

[Music]

Russia. One of these new emerging city

states was Rome. As legend has it,

Romulus and Ramis were twin brothers

abandoned by their parents and placed

into the river Tibet. As the basket

floated across the river, a female wolf

discovered the two orphans and nursed

them back to health. When Romulus and

Ramos became adults, they decided to

find a city where the wolf rescued them.

However, this created turmoil as both

brothers wanted the site to be named

after themselves. As Romulus and Ramos

fought relentlessly, eventually Romulus

came up with the final blow and killed

Ramos, creating Rome in 753 BC.

[Music]

While the Greek citystates might have

been colonizing, Cyrus the Great was

about to take over an empire. At the

time, the Persians were subjugated to

the rule of the Mes Empire. According to

legend, after his grandson Cyrus was

born, King Aages of Mes had a vivid

dream that his little grandson would one

day stage a revolt against him. King

Astages knew what to do and ordered his

chief adviser to kill the baby. But the

chief adviser gave the baby off to a

shepherd to be raised instead. However,

troubles weren't over for Cyrus. When he

was 10, King Aages found Cyrus. King

Aages wanted to kill him because the

dream was very clear. This man will

revolt against you. Yet against his

better senses, Cyrus was allowed to

live. King Astage's biggest mistake.

When Cyrus was a man, he gathered his

army and revolted against his maternal

grandfather, the two. But as prophecy

had it, Aiges surrendered in 550 B.CE.

However, Cyrus wasn't done conquering.

He conquered Babylon and became the

supreme ruler of Mesopotamia and even

the Indis Valley civilization. The world

was in Cyrus's hand. Cyrus then took

over the Greek colony of Ionia in Asia

Minor, leading a great Persian Empire.

And then he died, leaving it all in the

air for the next great Persian king,

Darius the

[Music]

Great. While back in Greece, various

citystates started to gain power, but

two were at the forefront, Sparta and

Athens. Sparta was a military

powerhouse. The famous Spartans believed

everything should focus on physical

strength and war. When a new young

Spartan was born, it would be

slaughtered if it didn't look healthy.

Boys were taken from their families at a

young age and were trained to become

soldiers. The brutal training included

physical conditioning, weapons training,

and harsh living conditions. The entire

life of a Spartan was to win a war.

Their society reflected with three main

groups. The ruling class consisted of

aristocrats who held political power.

The free non-citizens who were not

allowed to participate in government but

were still expected to serve in the

military and the hellets, a group of

enslaved people that provided labor for

the Spartan state. Life in Sparta was

harsh, brutal, and militaristic.

While their neighbors up north were

experimenting with this idea of

democracy, Athenian democracy was a

highly complicated mess. There were two

branches, the Council of 500 and the

Assembly. The Council of 500 was

selected randomly by a process known as

sort. Athens itself was made up of 10

different tribes. Each tribe was

responsible for providing 50 citizens to

serve for one year in the Council of 500

via random selection. Each eligible

citizen would be given a personalized

token. Those tokens were inserted into a

particular machine called a clarition.

This long lost technology included tubes

and balls which somehow selected 50

residents of each tribe to join the

illustrious Council of 500. While in the

assembly, there was a system in place

that said that every single citizen had

a vote. Of course, to be a citizen, you

had to be a male and not a slave. and

either born in Athens or to Athenian

parents. The Council of 500 would create

the agenda for the main assembly to vote

on because over 30,000 people could have

a vote at any given time. It was total

chaos. So to quell this, the council

would nominate nine presidents the

morning of the meeting, and it was their

job to ensure all the rules and

procedures were being followed. Since

they were appointed right before the

assembly met, they were almost

impossible to bribe. Somehow the

assembly would loudly vote on whether a

bill would pass. They would vote on

matters like appointing generals,

various laws, and other government

bureaucracy. However, not everyone liked

this Athenian democracy. The famous

Greek philosopher Plato thought the idea

was barbaric. In book six of the seminal

book, The Republic, Plato writes, "The

true navigator must study the seasons of

the year, the sky, the stars, the winds,

and all the other subjects appropriate

to his profession if he is really fit to

control the ship. Think that it's quite

impossible to acquire the professional

skill needed for such control, and that

there's no such thing as the art of

navigation. How much could a randomly

selected member of the Council of 500

really know? How much could he fully

contribute to society? Should we allow a

random member of society to have any

power? Instead, Plato would advocate for

the idea of a philosopher king, a man

who studies wisdom, logic, and

reasoning, a man who dedicates his life

to understanding how to be just, a man

who will become the navigator of wisdom.

Plato would rather say, "The society we

have described can never grow into a

reality or see the light of day, and

there will be no end to the troubles of

the states." Or, indeed, my dear Glalin,

of humanity itself, till philosophers

become rulers in this world, or till

those we now call kings and rulers

really and truly become philosophers,

and political power and philosophy thus

come into the same hands. There's just

one issue with Plato's quote. Every

leader thinks they're a philosopher

king. Everyone thinks their thoughts are

the best. Everyone thinks their ideas

are the wisest. From Yu the Great in

China to Labarnis of the Hittite Empire

to Sedara Gaimma of the Kingdom of

Magada in

India. While not so far away in the

Indian kingdom of Magada, a spoiled

prince named Sedarta Gaimma 500 B.CEE

lived in luxury inside a palace. Inside

this palace, Sedarta could have anything

he wanted. All the jewels, all the

wealth, all the finest goods thrust upon

him. His world inside of the palace was

a utopia on earth. There was no want,

need, or desire, and it was perfect

until he went outside his palace

compound, the only place he ever knew.

As he took his first steps outside of

his palace, what he saw struck a chord.

He saw an old man dying right on the

street in front. He realized that the

human experience wasn't something that

was perfect and sublime. Instead, it was

death. As Gilgamesh realized many years

ago, this was an inevitable part of the

human experience. Seda left his life of

luxury behind and began a quest for

knowledge and enlightenment. He studied

with spiritual teachers and meditated

for many years, searching for answers to

life's big questions. Finally, after 6

years of seeking, he sat down under a

fig tree and meditated until he achieved

enlightenment. Enlightenment is a state

of inner peace in which one has

transcended the limitations of the ego

and is in touch with a universal

consciousness or divine essence. It

isn't a fixed and permanent thing but

rather an ongoing process of growth and

development. But under that fig tree,

Sedarta became known as the Buddha or

the awakened one. He would spend the

rest of his life traveling the

countryside, becoming close to the

enlightenment. Darius was determined to

follow in his father's footsteps and

take over the world. After finalizing

their rule over the citystate of Ionia,

the Persians were on a quest to take

over Greece. Darius and his 20,000 men

came to the city of Marathon in the year

490 B.CE. a city 26.2 mi away from

Athens. The Athenians were vastly

outnumbered with only 10,000 men. As the

Persians were trying to regroup, the

powerful Greek hoplights crushed the

weaker Persian foot soldiers by routing

the wings before turning towards the

center of the Persian line. The remnants

of the Persian army fled to their ships

and left the battle. Early historians

believe the battlefield littered 6,400

Persian bodies while the Athenians lost

only 192. So the Persians retreated and

an Athenian messenger named Phipides ran

the 26.2 mi from Marathon to

Athens, exclaiming with joy how the

Athenians just beat the mighty Persian

Empire. All of Athens went crazy with

this fantastic news, hence leading the

Phipides historic trek to be sketched

into history as the world's first

marathon. However, the Persians weren't

done. Even with Darius I dying of

mysterious circumstances, his son,

Exeres I took over the crown and wanted

to complete his grandfather's legacy. In

480 B.CE. Xerxes I wanted revenge, so he

brought his enormous invasion force of

over

100,000 soldiers and was dead set on

conquering Greece. Then at a narrow pass

at Thermopoly, the Spartan king Leonitis

had his force of 7,000 Spartans maintain

the defense. Leonitis knew of his

disadvantage and developed a bold and

daring plan to defeat the Persians.

Rather than waiting for the Persians to

attack, Leonitis ordered his soldiers to

make a surprise attack on the Persian

camp, catching the Persians offguard and

disrupting their formation. Despite

their success, the Greek army was

ultimately overwhelmed by the Persians

who attacked from all sides and

eventually broke through the Greek

defenses. Leonitis and his soldiers

fought with courage and determination.

Still, they were ultimately defeated.

Then came the battle of Salamis where

the Greeks could change the tilt of the

war in a naval battle between the 500

Persian tri and 300 Greek tri. It didn't

look good for the Greeks. Still, the

great Athenian general, the Mysticles,

employed his plan to move the Persian

fleet into the narrow straits of Salamis

and hit the enemy fleet so hard that it

had nowhere to retreat. After a massive

sea battle, the Mysticles won Greece the

victory and changed the face of the war.

The Persians still had their goal.

Conquer the Greek citystates. Xer had

returned to Persia, leaving Persian

General Mardonius in charge of the

Persian force for most of the

significant battle yet. After diplomatic

talks ceased, Persia knew they had to

attack. As the Persians sent their

troops to Platea, the Greeks knew they

had to work together. With 30 various

Greek citystates working together, they

were able to field a massive

110,000 hoplight army with the primary

purpose of defeating Persia. Though that

was nothing compared to the estimated

150,000man army of Persia. The battle

was fierce and intense with both sides

fighting with ferocity and

determination. The Greek hoplights

continued to be effective against the

Persian cavalry and archers. The Greeks

also strategically used the terrain,

fighting on a slope that helped offset

the Persian numerical advantage. In the

end, the Greeks defeated the Persian

forces and secured a decisive victory.

The Persians suffered heavy losses and

Mardonius was killed in the fighting.

The battle of Platea marked the end of

the Greco Persian wars and the Persian

threat to Greece.

After the Persian War, life in ancient

Greece was spectacular. A golden age of

culture was upon us. With no longer

having to face the threat of war, Athens

was able to create architectural wonders

such as the Parthonon. The Parthonon

sits upon the Athenian Acropolis, a

prominent hill overlooking the city of

Athens to show its wealth and culture.

No matter where you'll go in Athens, you

can still see the great Parthonon even

today. Then came the theater. Around

this time, the state would sponsor the

most significant poets to create stories

in the Athenian festival called the city

Dionia. A festival designed to worship

the Greek god of theater and fertility,

Dionis, creating playwrights such as

Sophocles, Escilis, and Aristophanes.

[Music]

States were hungry for power. Athens was

recruiting citystates into their Dillian

alliance while Sparta was recruiting

citystates into their Pelpeneisian

alliance. Both Sparta and Athens felt

like they should control the city of

Corkia. Hence why in 434 B.CE war was

upon the Greek peninsula resulting in

naval battles such as the battle of

Ciblo and the battle of Pyos. By 421

B.CEE a short peace was negotiated.

However, this peace would not last and

Athens had their eyes on Sicily.

Initially, the expedition was going

well. The Athenians established

alliances with several Sicilian cities

and won several minor skirmishes against

the Sicilian forces. But soon Alabiades,

one of the greatest naval generals in

history, was recalled to Athens to face

charges of sacriage. The Athenian fleet

was left without his

leadership. In his absence, the

expedition began to unravel. The

Athenians could not take the city of

Syracuse, which had fortified its

defenses and was well prepared for a

siege. The Sicilians were aided by

reinforcements from Sparta, which saw an

opportunity to strike a crippling blow

against its arch rival, Athens. The

Athenians suffered from a lack of

supplies and were plagued by disease. At

the same time, the Syracus launched a

series of surprise attacks and ambushes.

Finally, after months of grueling

fighting, the Athenian fleet was

destroyed in a decisive battle.

Thousands of Athenians were killed and

many more were captured and enslaved. A

decade after that, Athens fell to the

Spartans. The age of legendary Greece

was now over. Both Athens and Sparta

were significantly weaker, never to

regain the same power they once had,

leaving the world ready for a

philosopher king to conquer it all.

Then in the east, the mandate of heaven

was up. The Zhao dynasty, after a long

800year rule, it was deemed by the

heavens that their empire was up, which

led to a period known as the waring

states 474 to 221 B.CE. This resulted in

Hanfi who created a new philosophy

called legalism. Followers of legalism

believed that people were inherently

selfish and would only act in their own

self-interest and that the only way to

keep them in line was through a system

of rewards and punishments that was

clear and consistently enforced. This

resulted in Fezy claiming that the best

way to achieve social order was by

establishing a powerful ruler

responsible for enforcing the law and

punishing wrongdoers. He also believed

the ruler should have complete control

over the military, the economy, and

society. While in the heart of the Waka

region of Mexico, the Zapotch

civilization started to flourish. The

capital city of Monte Alban was being

built on a mountaintop overlooking the

entire Waka Valley. Perched on the

mountaintop overlooking the valley of

Waka, the city was home to a ruling

elite who oversaw a hierarchal social

structure that included middleclass

artisans and lowerass farmers. The

people of the Zapotch civilization were

known for their innovative agricultural

practices, including the cultivation of

maze and other crops, which sustained

their communities in times of drought

and other environmental pressures. They

also developed an early writing system

which used a combination of symbols and

glyphs to represent words and ideas.

They developed an advanced calendar

system based on 260day and

3605day solar cycles.

In Greece during the year 356 B.CEE in

the city of Pella in the kingdom of

Macedon, the greatest commander in

history was born. Alexander the Great

grew up knowing he would be a leader and

was the son of King Philip II and Queen

Olympia. But the teacher was much more

impressive. Since he was a kid,

Alexander was tutored by Aristotle.

Aristotle is the man who is known as the

father of logic. He created the fields

of biology and taxonomy by introducing a

way to think called the scientific

method. A method that is still taught in

schools to this day. He also wrote

extensively about philosophy, ethics,

and art, changing the face of the world

as we know it today. This is the man who

was in charge of teaching Alexander the

Great. Alexander was 20 when his father

was assassinated. But his excellent

education allowed him to take over the

rest of the world. After his father died

in 336 B.CE, Alexander was hellbent on

keeping his family's power. So when the

Greek city of Thieves decided to revolt,

Alexander and his army marched 240 m in

14 days. When thieves refused to

surrender, he raised the entire city to

the ground and 6,000 were killed and the

rest were sold into slavery. The rest of

the Greek citystates recoiled in fear,

allowing Alexander to do as he pleased,

leaving for his new target to be Persia

and the new Persian king, Darius III. In

333 BC, Alexander faced the Persian army

at the Battle of Isus. This significant

engagement saw the Persian king Darius

III defeated and forced to flee.

Alexander then captured several key

cities, including the vital port of Ty,

which had resisted his initial siege. In

331 BC, Alexander faced Darius III again

at the Battle of Gagamela near the

Tigress River in modern-day Iraq.

Despite being outnumbered, Alexander won

a decisive victory using superior

tactics and mobility. The Persian army

was shattered and Darius III fled once

again. Alexander then proceeded to

capture the Persian capital of Babylon

and took control of much of Mesopotamia.

He continued his campaign eastward,

winning battles in what is now

modern-day Iran and Afghanistan. In 330

BC, he captured the Persian capital of

Procepils, a city of great wealth and

cultural significance. But Alexander

wasn't done. He wanted to expand

eastward, eventually crossing the Hindu

Kush mountains into India. However, his

troops grew tired of the endless

fighting and refused to go any further,

and Alexander was forced to turn back.

However, after Alexander failed in the

Indian subcontinent, a powerhouse

emerged in India called the Morian

Empire. At its height, it spanned over

much of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and

Afghanistan. However, this conquering

came at much of a cost for its leader,

Ashoka the Great. In 261 BC, after the

death of his parents, Ashoka decided

that his empire needed to expand. in his

sights, the kingdom of Kolinga. The war

was bloody. The war was fierce. Over a

100,000 people died. Ashoka couldn't

sleep with himself. He didn't know how

to deal with his actions that resulted

in so much death. So, he turned to the

teaching of the Buddha. Under Ashoka's

rule, the Morian Empire became known for

supporting Buddhist teachings and

promoting nonviolence. Ashoka issued a

series of edicts inscribed on rocks and

pillars throughout the empire that

promoted principles such as kindness,

respect for all religions, and the

abolition of slavery. Certain traits

were not shared in the West by

Alexander. In the West, it was deemed

honorable to die in combat, and a hero's

death would be remembered forever. A

farmer will die in anonymity. Alexander

died a few years later in Babylon at the

age of 32. Throughout his expedition,

Alexander was spreading Greek ideas

founded by his once wise teacher,

bringing the rise of Greek ideals across

the land, starting the seeds of the

western cultures we see today. Once

Alexander died, his empire just could

not sustain itself. His generals feuded

as to who should be the leader of this

great empire. Everyone wanted power yet

in fighting left to waste in oblivion.

Eventually in 323 BC after senseless

wars the Greek generals divided the

world into three major empires. The

Tomies in Egypt, the Seucids in the east

and the Antigonids in Greece.

Tomlamese, one of Alexander's generals,

led Egypt into a period of prosperity.

Inspiration by his former leader, Tomies

built the Library of Alexandria, a hub

for an intellectual scholarship.

Intellectuals from all over will come to

the library to exchange ideas and

thoughts throughout the world, leaving

us to have great philosophers like Plato

and Aristotle to be the backbone of our

culture. While the general Seucid was

given the keys to the city of Babylon.

Babylon at this time was a cultural hub

melting Greek, Persian, Indian and

Central Asian cultures. Seucid though

preferred Greek ideas and Greek

language. The Seucid Empire was at its

height during the reign of King

Antiochus III 223 BC to 187 BC. Under

King Antiochus III, the Seucids

encompassed a vast territory from

modern-day Turkey to modern-day

Pakistan, one of the largest empires on

record until the rise of the

Romans. While the Antigonids did not

have nearly as much success by the time

Antiggonids I took power, the Greeks

were just a shell of what they once

were. The age of the Greeks was behind

us. The Dolomies, the Seucids, and the

Antigonids went astray from the Roman

Empire. However, for Rome to rise, it

had to face a powerful foe, Carthage.

Both Rome and Carthage had a desire for

the same citystate, Msina, on the island

of Sicily. This would give either

civilization a foothold to grab power in

the Mediterranean. The first Punic war

was upon us and after 20 years of

fighting in the year 241 B.CEE and the

defeat of Carthage, the Treaty of

Lutatius was signed. The peace though

was short-lived. In 218 B.CE. the second

Punic Wars began when the Carthagian

general Hannibal invaded Italy with his

army, including elephants to conquer

Rome. Hannibal won several early battles

including the battle of Ka in 216 B.CE.

Still he was ultimately defeated by the

Roman general Cypio Aricanis at the

battle of Zama in 202 B.CEE. The war

resulted in the complete defeat of

Carthage which was forced to seed its

territories to Rome and the end of the

Carthaginian Empire. There was no doubt

in the world anymore that it was time

for the Romans to take charge in the

west. While in the east, after the end

of the waring states period, Chin Xi

Huang and the Chin dynasty were an

absolute power. 221 B.CE to 206 B.CE.

Chin was determined to turn diverse

China into a unified Chinese empire. He

divided the lands into 36 command areas

supervised by a governor, military

commander, and imperial inspector. It

was expected that you followed the will

of Chin or else you would face harsh

penalties. The basic ideas of legalism

in action, strong government, harsh

laws, and inheriting knowing that humans

were necessarily selfish. However, their

mandate from heaven ran quite quickly.

After Chinshi Huangs death, China was in

turmoil with another dynasty on

foot. Lu Bang, leader from 206 to 195

B.CE. After leading a revolt against the

Chin, was declared emperor of the new

Han dynasty. Instead of following the

strict legalistic mindset of the Chin,

Lu decided to set his empire as a

Confucianist paradise. The ideals of

moderation, virtue, and pity as set

through Confucianism were marched

throughout the empire, weaving the

cocoon of a powerful dynasty. During the

Han dynasty, the production of silk was

ever increasing, and the idea of profits

was in the minds of all. So, in 138

B.CE, Emperor Han Wu sent an imperial

convoy to make contact with cultures of

Central Asia and the Mediterranean. Then

after the routes were established,

Chinese merchants and traders would

bring their silk across the Silk Road to

the Middle East and eventually Europe

where it would be sold at high profits.

Though in the beginning, the route was

relatively short. Because in 97 BC,

Ambassador Coning was sent to Rome with

gifts of silk for their empire. However,

Khan only got as far as Mesopotamia,

because he was told by the Parththeians,

the dominant empire in Iran at the time,

that the journey would take years.

Little did Khan know that he was

misinformed, that the journey would have

been relatively shorter, but the

Parththeians wanted to keep their spot

as the middlemen. They did not want

China and Rome to have contact with one

another, creating a system of three

empires smooshed right up against each

other. Rome in the west, Parththeians in

the center and China in the

east. Then in 86 B.CEE, Greece, already

being weakened by the conquest of

Alexander the Great, was now the target

of the Roman Empire. General Lucius

Cornelius Sola led an army of legions to

the forefront of Athens. He besieged

Athens for several months, brutally

torturing the citizens within.

Eventually, when Athens fell, he ordered

his soldiers to loot and pillage the

city, destroying many important cultural

treasures. This takeover cemented Rome

as a superpower. Athens no longer had

the power, but rather it was in

Rome. While in 63 B.CE, CE, General

Pompei was tasked with capturing

Jerusalem and the region of Galilee. The

Romans quickly captured the cities,

forcing Galilee to be placed under Roman

rule, including a small village called

Nazareth. The Romans desire to expand

didn't end in Galilee. Though in 58

B.CE, De Julius Caesar was appointed

governor of the Roman provide of

Cicipolene Gaul, northern Italy with the

express assignment of conquering the

rest of the Gauls. At the time, the

Gauls were a group of Celtic peoples who

lived in that area that is now France,

Belgium, and parts of Switzerland,

Germany, and Italy. However, it was

Caesar's job to take over these Celtic

tribes. While the Gauls who were

insistent on their independence, all had

to work together under the leadership of

Versen Jederics in a lastditch attempt

to stop the Romans. As Caesar brought

his troops to Alleia in 52 BC, war was

upon us. Alicia was surrounded by a

double wall and a ditch with additional

fortifications on the town's hills.

Versen Jeder had gathered a large force

of GIC warriors inside the town. In

contrast, Caesar had assembled a sizable

Roman army outside the walls. Caesar

realized that a direct assault on the

town would be complex. So, he surrounded

the GIC forces and starve them into

submission. He ordered the construction

of a series of fortifications around

Alicia, including a circumalation wall

that encircled the town and a second

wall and ditch that faced outward to

defend against any attempts to break

out. Over several weeks, Caesar's forces

engaged in a grueling siege of Allesia.

With both sides suffering heavy losses,

the GIC warriors inside the town made

several attempts to break out, but they

were repelled by the Roman forces. The

tide of the battle turned in favor of

the Romans when a second GIC army led by

Versened's ally Commus attempted to

relieve the siege. Caesar sent a

detachment of his forces to intercept

the GIC reinforcements. After a fierce

battle, the Roman soldiers emerged

victorious. With his forces surrounded

and facing starvation, Versenetics was

forced to surrender. He emerged from

Allegia and offered himself as a

prisoner to Caesar, effectively ending

the GIC resistance to Roman rule.

Throughout the next 2 years, Caesar

crossed the GIC Empire, conquering and

implementing it into Rome. The Gauls

were implemented into Rome, even gaining

citizenship within the

empire. However, the Senate was not

happy with Caesar. Even though he had

great success against the Gauls, the

Roman Senate wanted him to stop. They

did not like the popularity Caesar was

gaining, nor the power he was

controlling. So the Roman Senate called

upon Caesar to resign his command and

disband his army or risk being declared

an enemy of the state. This led Caesar

to an essential choice to make. Will he

either follow the will of the Roman

Senate or ignore them and start a bloody

civil war? Roman law at the time

prohibited any general from crossing the

Rubicon River and entering mainland

Italy with a standing army without the

expressed permission of the Roman

Senate. To do so would be treason, and

this tiny stream would reveal Caesar's

intentions and mark the point of no

return. Civil war was imminent as Caesar

and his army marched over the Rubicon.

Battles in Corfinium and Farales showed

the Senate that Caesar was a worthy foe.

So the Roman Senate appointed his

son-in-law Nais Pompi to lead the Roman

forces against his father-in-law. Both

parties knew the importance of Spain due

to it providing a link between Italy and

the rest of Europe. The two armies

clashed near the town of Lea in

northeastern Spain. Caesar's army was

significantly outnumbered, but he could

use his superior military tactics and

training to gain the upper hand in the

battle. After several days of intense

fighting, Caesar emerged victorious,

forcing Pompy's forces to retreat,

declaring Caesar as the new leader of

Rome. When Caesar made it back to Rome,

the crowds were chanting, "Hail Caesar!

Hail Caesar!" The people then decided

that he would be the dictator of Rome

for life. Caesar immediately set to work

implementing a series of reforms and

policies aimed at improving ordinary

Romans lives and strengthening the

central government's power. He ordered

the construction of new infrastructure

such as roads, bridges, and aqueducts

which helped to connect different parts

of the city and improve trade and

commerce. Caesar also enacted a series

of political and social reforms,

including granting citizenship to many

people living in the Roman Empire and

creating new laws and customs that were

based on Roman practices. He encouraged

the spread of the Latin language and

culture throughout the city and

established the Julian calendar, which

is the basis of the calendar we use

today. However, Caesar's reign was

short-lived because 2 years later in 44

BC, he was stabbed to death by two loyal

senators, Casius and Brutus. The

assassination of Caesar led the Roman

world into disarray. The world was

filled with factions vying for

government control without a strong

leader.

Octaven Caesar's son, who was 18 then,

came to Rome to claim his inheritance

and assert his place in the political

landscape. He quickly aligned himself

with Caesar's loyal lieutenant, Mark

Anthony. Together, they defeated

Caesar's assassins at the Battle of

Philippi in 42 B.CE. However, tensions

soon arose between Octavian and Anthony

as both men vied for control of the

Roman Empire. In 31 B.CE, de their

forces clashed in the naval battle of

Actium which resulted in Octaven

emerging as the clear victor. Anthony

fled to Egypt with his lover Cleopatra

and the two committed suicide the

following year. With Antony's defeat,

Octavian emerged as the undisputed ruler

of Rome. In 27 B.CEE, he was appointed

Augustus and became the first Roman

emperor.

During Augustus's reign, a man who would

change the world was born in the Roman

occupied city of Bethlehem, Jesus

Christ. The Gospel of Luke says, "In

those days, a decree went out from

Caesar Augustus that all the world

should be registered. This was the first

registration when Corinius was governor

of Syria, and all went to be registered,

each to his own town." Luke 2 1-3. This

census was an essential factor in Roman

society because it established the

population counts in these various

communities making it possible to tax

these various citizens. So the highly

pregnant Mary and her betrothed husband

Joseph had to travel 90 miles on foot

from Nazareth to Bethlehem to complete

this legally required Roman census. When

they arrived in Bethlehem, many other

descendants of the King of David or

members of the Jewish faith were also

going to Bethlehem for the census. They

found out that there was no room for

them in the inn. So, they were forced to

take shelter in a stable where Mary gave

birth to Jesus. Jesus was later named

King of the Jews. After Jesus's birthday

and the completion of the census, Mary

and Joseph returned to Nazareth with

their extraordinary son. As the years of

Jesus went on, stories about him grew.

More and more followers began to worship

Jesus as their Messiah. They claimed

that he can catch an endless amount of

fish. They claimed that he can cure the

blind. And they claimed that he was the

son of God. So these followers,

specifically his disciples, started to

write down his entire life journey. Four

of his closest disciples, Matthew, Mark,

Luke, and John, wrote down the main

chunks of the book in these parts called

Gospels. Each of these gospels covered

almost all of the same events, the

narrative life of Jesus Christ. This

narrative testimony of a child born in a

stable changed the world

forever. Even though many loved Jesus,

some viewed him as a threat. Emperor

Tiberius succeeded Augustus and reigned

from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was

notorious for his delators, a network of

informants rewarded for spying and

reporting on suspected traitors and

criminals. Criminals reported on by the

Delators had to face a treason trial,

often resulting in executions or forced

suicides. His prefect of Judea at the

time, Pontius Pilate, was no stranger to

the harsh punishment of traitors. As

Jesus was influencing more and more

people, he became more of a political

threat. So, following the guidelines of

Emperor Tiberius, Pilate was given no

practical political choice other than to

execute Jesus on the cross. Roman law

was evident. Then, one must follow the

emperor's will or else they will perish.

As Jesus was crucified on the cross, a

new religion was born.

Christianity. In the beginning,

Christianity was just a small sect of

Judaism. Nevertheless, its growth would

[Music]

unparalleled. Paul of Taurus would take

the word of his chosen Lord across the

known world. From Greece to Turkey to

Syria, the word of Jesus Christ spread.

His missionary tales are now documented

in the New Testament as the book of

Acts. The more Paul went to different

places, the more followers he gained. On

the same token, it created more enemies.

The divide between monotheism and

polytheism was on the rise. It was

beginning to get a lot tougher for

Romans to accept a religious population

that didn't believe in gods like Mars

and Jupiter. So when the great fire of

Rome occurred in July of 64 AD, Emperor

Nero quickly blamed it on the

Christians. The great fire was an event

that destroyed 23 of the city of Rome.

So in order to pay for these massive

repairs, Nero instituted heavy tributes

across the empire. to meet at least a

proportion of the costs. Nurero also

started to print more Roman currency,

creating an inflationary effect for the

first time in the empire's history.

However, the individuals who lived under

Roman rule, which wasn't in Rome proper,

were upset by this new policy. So, in

the holy city of Jerusalem in 66 AD, a

revolt was on. At first, the first

Jewish revolt succeeded and the Jewish

forces quickly expelled the unprepared

Roman army. Then the rebels gained some

traction in the neighboring villages in

Galilee. In response, the Roman Emperor

Nero sent the general Vespasian to meet

the Jewish forces. An endeavor that

pushed most rebels into Jerusalem proper

by the time Vespasian was proclaimed

emperor in 69 CE. Then around Passover

in 70 AD, Vespasian and his forces

sieged the city, depleting it of food

and water within the walls of Jerusalem.

The Jews started to quarrel within,

leaving them more vulnerable to attack.

By August, the Romans breached the

defenses, killed much of the population,

and destroyed many of their holy sites.

With the Jews decimated, the strength of

polytheism lived long.

Then in 98 to 117 AD under Emperor

Trean, the Roman Empire was able to

expand its greatest territorial extent,

spanning all the way from modern-day

Britain to the Persian Gulf. Roman rule

was

everywhere. Well, except for in the

Americas, because the Romans didn't even

know they existed. In the Americas, we

can see the growth of various

civilizations across the Andes located

in modern-day Peru and Chile. The Mochi

civilization was able to build

monumental structures like the Wakadel

Soul and Wakadela Luna. Impressive

pyramids that were the center of their

religions. They also created advanced

fertilization techniques that used bird

droppings as fertilizer. Their highly

centralized government made everyone

know their place in

society. While a little bit more south,

the Nazca civilization is one enthralled

in mystery. The people of Nazca created

a series of large scale geoglyph

consisting of hundreds of individual

figures, including geometric shapes,

animals, and human-like figures by

removing the dark reddish brown iron

oxidecoated pebbles covering the surface

of the Nazca desert. These lines are now

called Nazca lines, the purpose of which

is still unknown to this day and subject

to conspiracy theory today.

Around 100 AD, the Zapotch started

establishing Monte Albban, their

capital. It was one of the first

examples of urban planning in the

Americas. The city was laid out in a

grid pattern with main roads and smaller

side streets leading to plazas and

public buildings. The city was also

divided into different districts, each

with specialized functions such as

residential, administrative, and

religious, leaving it to be in use for a

thousand years after

[Music]

that. While back in Rome, after the end

of Trajan's reign in 117 AD, a new

emperor with a purpose was in hand.

Hadrien was a man tasked with a near

impossible. Keeping the massive Roman

Empire under one rule. He first had to

deal with a crisis with the newly

colonized Roman Britain. Like their

predecessors in Judea, the Roman Brits

did not like being Roman. So they

started to cause unrest. And in the eyes

of Hadrien, a real threat of revolution

was on his mind. So Hadrien had ordered

a massive wall aptly named Hadrien's

wall which spanned almost coast to

coast. Keeping it sunk in the conquered

people's minds that the Romans were here

staving off revolution in one region.

However, in Galilee things weren't as

peaceful. Simon Bar Kokba led a

rebellion of the Jewish people to free

themselves from Roman rule. As you see,

Rome was developing a new city called

Alia Capolina over the ruins of

Jerusalem from the last revolt with

temples dedicated to polytheistic gods

like Jupiter. By 132, Bar Kokba took the

bottle of Nasi, head of state. Many Jews

regarded him as the Messiah who would

save the Jewish people and restore their

independence. Goka's troops would storm

Ilia Capalina, almost knocking out

entirely the Roman garrison controlling

the city. Hadrien though would not have

it. So he sent a force of 120,000 men to

the lands of Judea to conquer and force

the Jewish people into submission. As

Casius Dio says in the history of Rome,

50 of their most important outposts and

985 of their most famous villages were

raised.

580,000 men were slain in the various

raids and battles, and the number of

those that perished by famine, disease,

and fire was past finding out. Thus,

nearly the whole of Judea was made

desolate. History of Rome

69.14 1:2 Rome made it clear that it was

not to be taken

lightly. While in China, the message was

quite different. The ideas of Buddhism

were spreading along with the Chinese

philosophies of Confucianism and Tauism

and built a dynasty. These three

philosophies work together to make the

Han dynasty stronger and more united in

many

ways. While in America, the Mayan

architects went across northern Pin and

designed a series of short broad temples

with wide staircases flanked by enormous

stucco masks. These stucco masks were

made of plaster and some burned and

powdered limestone. The Mayans built

these stone armatures into elaborate

deity faces to capture the soul of the

gods and bring it to the people. A

temple like the E7 sub, yes, historians

name Mayan temples like military

submarines, is a pyramid with 16 stucco

masks. Each allows us to go deeper into

the souls of these deities of the

past. In the Middle East, a new empire

was emerging with roots in the past. A

man named Ardashir claimed to have royal

blood that traced all the way back to

Cyrus the Great. Ardashir claimed that

he should be the true ruler of the

Persian Empire, not those frauds of the

Parththeians. Artichir was able to unite

the various tribes of Persia. In 224 AD,

Artichir I led his forces against the

Parthian king Artabenus V in a

significant battle at Hermas. The

Cisanian forces known for their cavalry

defeated the Parththeians and captured

Artabinus V. With this victory, Ardashir

I declared himself king and established

the Cisanian Empire. Ardashir I quickly

established a centralized government and

built a new capital at Tijapon on the

Tigris River. He reestablished the

Zoroastrian religion which had been

suppressed by the Parththeians as the

empire's official religion. He also

built a powerful military machine with

skilled cavalry and archers. He began to

expand his territory by conquering

neighboring

regions. As the Parththeians were on

their way out, so were the Han. The Han

dynasty's downfall was marked by

political instability, economic

problems, external threats, internal

rebellions, and power struggles. The

weakening of central authority allowed

regional warlords to seize power, and

the government's attempts to address

economic issues were unsuccessful.

External threats and rebellions weakened

the dynasty even further. A warlord

named Sao Pi declared himself emperor

and established the Weii dynasty,

officially ending the Han

dynasty. While back in Rome, Emperor

Dialesian 284 to 305 faced a problem.

Rome was becoming too large and

impossible to manage. So, Dialesian

created the tetrarchy and divided the

region into four where each region was

governed by a separate emperor. Within

the tetra, there were two types of

emperors, Augustus and Caesars.

Dialesian chose Maxameon to be his equal

to Augustus. In contrast, Galleras and

Constantius were appointed to be

Caesars. However, this system created

uncontrolled chaos and anarchy. Each

emperor had desires for power and

ambition and it all came to a head in

305 when power shifted. Both Dialesian

and Maximian retired and in 306

Constantius died. Three out of the four

original leaders were left out of the

system leading to a power vacuum to

come. Emperor Constantine the Great was

appointed by his father's army

unilaterally as an Augustus and a Caesar

at the same time to replace his father.

At the same time, Maximan's son,

Maxentius, felt as though he should have

been appointed Caesar instead of

Valyriius Seis. So, in 307, Maxentius

sent his army and forced Valyriius Seis

to surrender. Come 308, Galleras

appointed Lascinius to replace him. So

on the west side of Rome, two emperors

wanted to rule. Constantine ruled over

Gaul in Britain and Maxentius ruled

Italy and North Africa. Maxentius had a

difficult time consolidating his power

and he faced increasing resistance from

the people of Rome. To try and secure

his hold on power, Maxentius ordered the

construction of a new bridge across the

Tyber River near Rome known as the

Milvian Bridge. Constantine saw

Maxentius as a threat to his power. So

he decided to march on Rome to confront

him. As the two armies approached each

other near the Milvian Bridge,

Constantine had a vision of a cross in

the sky with the words in this sign

conquer. Some accounts suggest that this

vision may have been a dream or a

hallucination, while others suggest that

it may have been a sign from God.

Regardless of the nature of the vision,

Constantine took it as a sign that he

would be victorious in battle if he

fought under the sign of the Christian

cross. He had his soldiers paint this

symbol on their shields and banners, and

he went into battle with renewed vigor

and confidence. The battle was fierce

and brutal, with both sides suffering

heavy losses. Maxentius had a larger

army, but his troops were spread out and

disorganized. Constantine was able to

take advantage of this, and he was able

to push Maxentius's forces back towards

the Tyber River. In the chaos of the

retreat, Maxentius was forced off the

Milvian Bridge and into the water where

he drowned. Shortly after his victory,

Constantine met Lasinius at Midolanum,

modern Milan, to confirm several

political and dynastic arrangements to

produce the edict of Milan. This edict

gave power for Eastern Rome to the

Cinius and Constantine sole power of the

West. More importantly though, this

document extended religious tolerance

for Christians and restored any

properties confiscated from them during

the persecution. However, the peaceful

coexistence of both rulers was

short-lived. Though the edict allowed

for the safety of Christians, The Cineas

was still very much a paganist. Their

differences started to grow. All came

near the city of Crosopoulos in 324 AD

where both armies went and fought.

Constantine's military might was on

display. He was able to force the

Eastern Roman army towards the sea,

leaving many to be killed or captured.

Constantine was declared the sole leader

of Rome and Leinius was declared dead by

hanging. He renamed the eastern Roman

capital from Bisantium to Constantinople

to celebrate his victory. Then in 325

AD, Constantine presided over the first

council of Nissa when the 300 bishops

established the now famous Nyine Creed

which declared that Jesus Christ was

begotten, not made, and of one substance

with the father. Constantine was finally

baptized as a Christian on his deathbed

in 337 AD.

Come 370 AD, a new player was on the

scenes. The Huns were a barbaric nomadic

civilization who were masters of

warfare. According to legends, they were

taught horsemanship as early as the age

of three. Also, they would attack their

own with a sword to teach them how to

endure pain. These people weren't to be

messed lightly with. When they crossed

the Vulga River in 370 on their horses

and lusted for blood, the Allen

civilization didn't stand much chance. 2

years later, they attacked the Asher

Goths, an eastern tribe of Germanic

Goths, who harassed the Roman Empire by

frequently attacking their territories.

By 376, the Huns had attacked the

Visigothths, the western tribe of Goths,

and forced them to seek sanctuary within

the Roman Empire. As the Huns dominated

Goth and Visigothth lands, they earned a

new reputation as the new barbarians in

town and seemed unstoppable. By 395 AD,

they began invading Roman domains. And

some Roman Christians believed they were

devils who arrived straight from

hell. The reason they started invading

Rome was because of the death of

Theodosius the Great. His shining

achievement as emperor was keeping the

Goths and the Huns at bay. But on death,

he decided to follow the ideas of

Diolesian and split the empire up again.

splitting up control between his two

sons, Arcadius in the east and Honorius

in the west, making Theodosius the last

leader of a united

Rome. With Honorius in charge, the

incapable general made Western Rome an

easy target to be bullied. The

Visigothths, looking for a new place to

live, had their eyes set on Rome. So

throughout the early 410s, the Visigoths

ransacked various Roman cities. Then on

August 24th, 410, the Visigoth sacked

Rome, taking control of this historic

city. It was the first time in nearly

800 years that a foreign army occupied

the city of Rome. However, the Visigoths

couldn't maintain control of Rome.

Instead, they continued to ransack Roman

territories until they established their

kingdom in 418 in modern-day

Spain. While the prospects of existence

weren't so much better in Eastern Rome,

the notorious Attilaa the Hun was

gaining power and his brutal tactics

called him the scourge of God. After a

failed peace attempt in 441, Attilla and

his army stormed through the Balkans and

the Danaban frontier. Another peace

treaty was forged in 442, but Attilla

attacked again in

443, killing, ransacking, and pillaging

his way to the well fortified city of

Constantinople. However, due to

Constantinople's high walls, Attilla

couldn't conquer it. Instead, Attilla

was able to muster another peace

agreement. He would leave Constantinople

alone in exchange for an annual tribute

2,100 of gold. a staggering sum. Then in

451, the Huns invaded the Gauls,

allowing the once enemies of the

Visigoths and the Romans to wise up and

work together to fight the Huns.

According to legend, the night before

the imminent battle, Attilla consulted

sacrificed bones and saw that thousands

of his army would fall in the fight. The

next day, his premonition came true. In

the Battle of the Catalanian Plains,

after hours of ferocious fighting, tens

of thousands of soldiers lay dead,

giving Attilla his first and only

military defeat in history. However,

even after the loss, Attilla and his

army marched on and returned to Italy,

continuously ravaging the cities. In

452, with Rome in sight, he met Pope Leo

I, who acted as an emissary between

Aillaa and Rome. There's no record of

what they discussed. Still, according to

legend, the apparitions of St. Paul and

St. Peter appeared to Aillaa. They

threatened to kill him if he didn't

negotiate with Pope Leo I. Attilla

decided to pull out of Italy and return

to the great Hungarian plane. Whether

because of his fear of the Pope and his

saintly allies or because of his troops

were stretched too thin and weakened by

malaria.

However, the struggle for Western Rome

wasn't over. In 476 AD, the young

emperor Romulus Augustus had trouble

keeping power for himself as many Romans

felt he was illegitimate. So, the

Eastern Roman Empire sent the Germanic

general Odaser and his mercenaries to

suppress a revolt by the Roman army in

the region. However, instead of

supporting the Eastern Roman Empire,

Odaser saw an opportunity to seize power

for himself. He turned against the Roman

government and deposed the last Western

Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus,

effectively marking the end of the

Western Roman Empire. As the steps of

his victory, Odaser was declared the

king of Italy. However, Odaser's victory

was short-lived because in 493,

Theodoric the Great of the Ostrogoths

with the support of Eastern Roman

Emperor Zeno came in and created the

Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy, sending

Odius to meet his

fate. While Europe was in the crux of a

dark age, India under the Gupta Empire

was in a mathematical golden age. Great

mathematicians like Brahma Gupta started

using zero as a placeholder and as

various solutions for mathematical

equations. The astronomer Arabata was

able to calculate the circumference of

the earth. He proved the world was round

long before it was globally accepted.

Arabata was also able to develop methods

for calculating pi and square roots.

However, his crowning achievement was

creating the concept of an asytote,

which is a line that approaches the

curve but never touches

it. The Franks under Clovis I had been

engaged with the Alammani, another

Germanic tribe, and tensions between the

two groups were running high. In 496 AD

in the battle of Tobek, Clovis I led his

forces into battle against the Alammani

with both sides eager to gain the upper

hand in the ongoing struggle for power

and territory. As the Alammani began to

push the Franks to defeat and a moment

of desperation, Clovis called out to the

Christian God for assistance, promising

to convert to Christianity if he emerged

victorious. According to legend, a

sudden thunderstorm appeared and the

Franks could regroup and launch a

successful counterattack against the

Alammani. The battle ended in a decisive

victory for the Franks and Clovis kept

his promise and converted to

Christianity, officially cementing

Christianity to the forefront and

birthing the Frankish kingdom.

While the western Roman Empire might

have fallen in the east the Roman Empire

was changing. Many historians argue that

the Eastern Roman Empire based out of

Constantinople should be considered a

part of Rome. However, it is undeniable

that under Justinian I would lead the

Eastern half into its next chapter in

life, the Byzantine Empire. Whether it's

a continuation of the Roman Empire

before is a debate for another under.

Under the leadership of Justinian I,

like many Roman emperors before him, he

would expand the Byzantine Empire to

reach places such as Italy, North

Africa, and even Spain. He also

commissioned a team of legal scholars to

codify all the laws of the Roman Empire

known as the Corpus Jurus Civilis, which

became the basis of the European laws we

know today. He also commissioned the

world-renowned Hegia Sophia in

Constantinople where this beautiful

cathedral adorned with intricate mosaics

and marble decorations became the head

of the Eastern Orthodox

[Music]

Church. However, Jesus wasn't the only

prophet at the time. In the small town

of Mecca, a nomadic tribe called the Qur

gave birth to a man who would change the

religious world yet again. Muhammad.

Muhammad was orphaned at an early age

and was raised by his grandfather and

later his uncle. As he grew up, he

worked as a merchant, which earned him

the nickname Alamin, meaning the

trustworthy. On one of his pilgrimages

in 610, Muhammad meditated in a cave on

Mount Jabalor, the angel Gabriel

appeared and relayed the word of God.

Recite in the name of your Lord who

creates creates a man from a clot.

Recite for your Lord is most generous

became the opening verses of Surah.

Chapter 96 of the Quran. At first,

Muhammad was reluctant, not knowing how

to disclose this information. However,

soon enough, Muhammad began to gather a

small following, which was mocked by the

pagans of Mecca. However, when Muhammad

denounced idol worship, the leader of

Mecca knew that he was through. So,

through the resistance from Mecca,

Muhammad and his followers were

eventually forced to immigrate to

Medina, a city 260 mi away. there.

Muhammad was instrumental in ending

various civil wars, creating a

prosperous Muslim community.

Nevertheless, this prosperity would be

challenged by the members of Muhammad's

old tribe, the Curesh and their allies,

who marched up to Medina with a large

army to attack the Muslims. Muhammad

devised a plan that they could defend

the city if they dug a trench around its

perimeter, making it near impossible for

enemy forces to penetrate. For several

weeks, the Curesh tried to break through

the trench, trying and trying yet again.

Eventually, strong wind and heavy rain

caused the Curesh forces to abandon the

siege, marking the Muslims as

victorious. In 6:30, the Muslim army

marched into Mecca, taking the city with

minimum casualties. Muhammad gave

amnesty to the enemy leaders who once

opposed him, converting most of the

Meccan population to

Islam. At the time of Muhammad's death,

the Muslims had successfully united the

Arabian Peninsula under the banner of

Islam. After Muhammad's death, a series

of caiffs or leaders took over the

leadership of the Muslim community.

Beginning with Abu Bakr, a close

companion of the prophet. Under the

leadership of the caiffs, the Muslim

community continued to expand its

territory, conquering new lands and

spreading the message of Islam. At

first, Akubacher had his eyes set on the

Byzantine Empire's provinces of Syria,

taking over the crucial cities of

Damascus and Jerusalem. Then in 636, the

Arab forces invaded the Sassined Empire,

taking over their capital city in 637,

marking the end of the Sassined Empire.

Onward to Egypt they went, where after

years of fighting they successfully

defeated the Byzantine to take over the

city of Alexandria in 642 AD,

economically crippling the Byzantines.

By 716, the Arab forces had conquered

much of North Africa, Carthage, and

Spain, so that by 716, the Arabs had an

extensive empire from Lisbon to China.

After consolidating their hold on the

Iberian Peninsula, the Arabs launched

raids into neighboring Franchia,

modern-day France, in 732 AD, they

launched a significant invasion to

expand their territory northward. The

Arabs forces led by Amir Abdul Raman

Algafiki quickly conquered several

cities in the region, including Bordeaux

and Tours. However, Charles Martell, the

military leader of the Franks, assembled

a large army to meet the Arabs in

battle. The battle of Christianity

versus Islam. Both empires wanted to

keep their own faith. The Arabs wanted

to impose their religion onto the

Franks. The two forces clashed near

Tours on October 10th, 7:32 AD. The

battle was fierce and lasted several

days with both sides suffering heavy

casualties. In the end though, Charles

Martell and the Franks emerged

victorious and the Arab forces were

forced to retreat back to Spain, ending

the massive expansion of the Arabic

Empire.

[Music]

While in the west the definition of god

was war in China during the rule of the

tang religions like Buddhism, taoism and

confucianism all coexisted peacefully. A

citizen was able to believe what they

wanted to believe for many temples and

pagotas to be built across the empire.

Also during the tang the height of

Chinese poetry was upon us. Poets like

Leeo and Dufu created poems that later

became the foundations of Chinese

literature. Leeo wrote a poignant poem

called Zanzen on theQing thing mountain

translated by Sam Hamill. The birds have

vanished down the sky. Now the last

cloud drains away. We sit together the

mountain and me until only the mountain

remains.

Charlemagne, also known as Charles the

Great, became the king of the Franks in

768. Charlemagne was a skilled military

leader who expanded the Frankish Empire

through successful campaigns. He

conquered much of Western Europe,

including modern-day France, Germany,

Italy, and Spain. Charlemagne was also a

devout Christian, and worked to spread

Christianity throughout his empire.

In 785, Heron was declared caiff.

Instead of focusing on conquering like

his brethren, he instead focused on the

scientific growth in the new capital

city of Baghdad. Heron al-Rashid wanted

to create the House of Wisdom, a library

and research center that attracted

scholars from around the world. These

scholars would come to the house of

wisdom with the desire to learn. They've

translated the works of the past as well

as developing the science of algebra,

chemistry, sociology, and the concept of

infinity. While the Vikings had a

different idea of progress. The Vikings

were a group of univilized pagans from

modern-day Scandinavia who wanted to

gain material wealth. So, June 8th, 793

AD marked the beginning of the Viking

age in Europe. Lindesfarn was a small

isolated island off the northeast coast

of England that was home to a famous

monastery and considered one of Europe's

most important centers of learning. On

the day of the raid, a group of Viking

warriors, likely from Norway or Denmark,

landed on the island and attacked the

monastery. The Vikings pillaged the

monastery, killing many monks and taking

others as slaves. The raid was a brutal

and unexpected attack on a place of

great religious and cultural

significance and it sent shock waves

throughout

Europe. In 799 in Rome, Pope Leo III was

attacked by a faction of Rome who

believed that the Pope was guilty of

tyranny and serious personal misconduct.

So, Pope Leo III ran away to the

Frankish kingdom. After this,

Charlemagne and his Frank army provided

an escort for the Pope and restored him

to the papal office. But yet, the power

of the papacy was being questioned with

many people wanting it to go away, which

caused Charlemagne to go to Rome in late

800 to fight for his pope. For his

loyalty, on Christmas Day in the

Basilica of St. Peter. Pope Leo III

placed a crown on Charlemagne's head,

declaring him the new Holy Roman

Emperor, creating a new Roman Empire,

the Holy Roman Empire, or at least the

first rendition of it. Under

Charlemagne, the foundations of a

genuinely great empire were forming. But

once Charlemagne died in 814, the new

empire was bludgeoning with

problems.

His son Lewis the pious 788 to 840

inherited an empire filled with

problems. Many of his own citizens

viewed him as a strong Catholic who was

well-intentioned but was incredibly weak

and unable to do anything. As the

Vikings continued their raids along the

Ryan River, attacking Holy Roman Empire

cities such as Cologne, Trier, and

Mains, raiding various Catholic

monasteries and destroying religious

artifacts caused fear and hatred among

his citizens. Why would anyone trust a

leader if they can't stop barbaric

pagans? So, various local leaders

started to focus on defending their land

rather than relying on the central

government for defense. Hence beginning

the process of independently recreating

the Chinese system of feudalism. At this

time, people would willingly farm on

lands, giving up their freedom to these

local leaders to protect them from the

Vikings, creating the basis of a new

system of

feudalism. While the Holy Roman Empire

might have been fighting with the

Vikings and the Byzantines were fighting

with the Arabs, in 820, a group of Arab

raiders landed on the island of Cree.

Over the next several years, Arab forces

gradually gained control of the island,

overcoming the resistance of the

Byzantine defenders. The conquest was

completed in 827 and Cree became part of

the Arab Empire. The conquest of Sicily

and Sardinia followed a similar pattern.

In 827, a large Arab fleet landed on

Sicily and Arab forces quickly gained

control of much of the island. They then

moved on to Sardinia which fell to the

Arab invaders in

828. In the Holy Roman Empire once Lewis

the Pious died in 840 AD. So did the

Charlemagne Empire. The infighting

between family members grew leading to

the Holy Roman Empire being divided

between three family members in the

famous Treaty of Verdon. In the west,

the formation of the West Frankish

kingdom was given to Charlemagne's

grandson, Charles the Bald, in

modern-day France. In the East, the East

Frankish Kingdom was given to another

grandson, Lewis the German, which was

obviously settled in modern-day Germany,

while the Middle Kingdom was given to

Charlemagne's eldest son, Lair. However,

being squeezed in between the West and

East Frankish kingdoms gave the Middle

Kingdom a short lifespan and was

practically

irrelevant. The Vikings weren't just a

problem for mainland Europe. They were

pillaging everything in mainland

England. So, in 871, the new king of

Wessex, Alfred the Great, rose to power

with one thing in mind, keeping everyone

safe. Alfred built a network of

fortifications known as burrs designed

to protect his people from Viking

attacks. He also developed new military

tactics and strategies and fostered

alliances with other Anglo-Saxon

kingdoms. Unlike in Great Britain

though, the Vikings were actually

invited to Russia. According to Russian

legend, the tribes in Russia were tired

of dealing with political strife. So

they invited the Verangians, a sect of

Vikings to establish order and a

government over there. Hence, Rurick

came with his two brothers to the city

of Navgarod and using the Vikings famous

force, they were able to establish order

in the city. Declaring Rurick as their

new king, creating the Keieven Roose

dynasty. Under the military leadership

of Oleg, one of the Ruric Kingsmen, the

Keieven RS started establishing Smolinsk

and Kiev in modern-day Ukraine, creating

the forefront of Russia today.

While back in England, expanding upon

his grandfather Alfred the Great's

alliance network, Athlan was declared

king of Essex, Athlan was able to get

all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to work

together to fend off the Vikings of the

British Isles. He was declared to be the

first king of England due to his ability

to navigate alliances and keep everyone

safe, beginning one of the longest

monarchies in human history.

While the East Frankish kingdom was

facing a similar problem, the pagan

maguars were attacking everyone across

the kingdom, leaving the kingdom to live

in fear. However, King Otto of the East

Frankish Empire was able to defeat the

pesky Maguars at the Battle of Lechfeld

955. Then in 961, he could fully conquer

all of the kingdoms of Italy, restoring

Christendom to all the former pagans. So

in 962 Otto I was coronated to Pope John

I 12th in Rome to be the new Holy Roman

Emperor. In France though the West

Frankish kingdom was struggling because

in 987 King Louis V a direct descendant

of Charlemagne died at age 20 without

leaving an heir to take over their

dynasty leaving the French monarchy in

peril. So the French aristocracy had an

election between Hugh Kappit, a noble

with extensive lands in the region of

Isle de France and Charles, Duke of

Lower Lraine. With the support of

Adelber, the Archbishop of Roms, Hugh

Kapet became the first king of France,

starting the Capescian dynasty.

[Music]

However, at this time, the typical

person in Europe was always living in

fear. Every civilization was on the

verge of conquering. They've all become

landhungry and were willing to fight for

it. So, across Europe at this time,

every civilization started to entrench

their society in the ideas of feudalism

leading to another social pyramid. At

the bottom lay the serfs. Their job was

to farm the land and ensure everyone was

fed. Then came the knight who provided

protection for the people. Then came the

nobles who ruled over a specific

territory owning the land. Then came the

kings as previously mentioned who gave

lands to the nobles. But all the way at

the top was the pope because the pope

could speak directly to God and had

godgiven ownership of all the lands.

In the early 11th century, Leaf Ericson

was sent on a voyage to discover lands

west of Greenland. If you look at a map,

west of Greenland is the Americas. So,

Leaf and his crew ventured to this new

mystical land called Vinland in

modern-day New Finland, Canada. Leaf and

his crew spent the winter in Vinland,

establishing a small settlement and

trading with the local indigenous

people. They also explored the

surrounding area which they found rich

in natural resources including timber,

fish, and game. Leaf and his crew

returned to Greenland in the spring

where they were greeted as heroes for

discovering new lands. Little did Leaf

know that he discovered a new continent

for his European people.

[Music]

Though significantly less is known about

the Americas, some historians believe

that at the time a similar type of

expansion happened in the American

continent like in Europe. Sadly, we just

don't have the historical records from

this unique period. We know that the

Mayans down in South America were

building the impressive cities of Tikl,

Palenke, and Chichinitsa having a

population of anywhere between 2 and 10

million. We also know that there were

various tribes across the north,

including the Cherokee, the Navajo, and

the Inuits. The Inuits are most likely

to have interacted with Leaf's fleet.

While back in Europe, in the holy city

of Jerusalem laid the very famous

church, the church of the holy sepulker.

According to Christian belief, this

church was built on the day Jesus was

crucified and resurrected. However, in

1009 AD, Arab Califf al-Hakim ordered

the destruction of this sacred holy

site. All of the sacred sites were

destroyed, leaving them completely

annihilated. When the news reached

Europe, Christians were horrified. Pope

Sergius IV sent a circular letter to all

churches calling for a holy fight in the

Middle East and the expulsion of Muslims

from the Holy

Land. But yet, the Arabs of the Abbised

Caliphate would actually be expelled by

another before Jerusalem. The Seljic

Turks, a central Asian Turk people of

the Muslim faith, were beginning to grow

their empire. In 1055 they took over the

abbiscided caliphate capital city of

Baghdad. The Seljic Turks initially

respected the caiff but the Seljixs took

over the city over time. In 1076 they

captured Medina followed the next year

by the capturing of Mecca, the holiest

city in Islam.

[Music]

Due to this, the Muslim world wasn't

ready for Pope Urban II at the Council

of Claremont in 1095 to call upon all

Christians to take up arms and liberate

the Holy Land from Muslim rule. The Pope

promised spiritual rewards and

forgiveness of sins to those who joined

the crusade, and many knights, nobles,

and peasants were inspired to take up

the cause. Many European nobles such as

Godfrey of Bullan to lose Bohem of

Toronto and Robert of Flanders brought

their armies from Europe on their

journey to Jerusalem. While the

Christians were united, the Muslims were

divided and unable to put up a strong

defense against the crusaders. Hence,

the Christians took over the county of

Adessa in 1098 and finally the holy city

of Jerusalem in 1099.

However, the crusade wasn't done. In

1144, the Muslim forces led by Turkish

ruler Ahmad Adenzingi launched a siege

against Adessa. The city was poorly

defended and the crusaders could not

resist the Muslim forces for long. After

a siege of several weeks, the city was

breached and the Muslim forces overran

the city, killing or enslaving much of

the population. But the Christians

weren't happy with that. So in 1147 the

massive armies of Europe came back with

attempts to free Adessa. The crusaders

faced significant logistical challenges

including shortages of food and

supplies. They were also plagued by

infighting and political rivalries which

called the campaign to be in ruin after

the disastrous loss of the battle of

Anob in 1149 which resulted in the

capture of King Louis VI and the loss of

much of the crusader

army. While the Christians and Muslims

were fighting, the Hindus in the Camar

Empire under King Surya II built a

fantastic temple for the Hindu god

Vishnu called the Ankor Watt. Vishnu is

an important god in Hinduism known as

the preserver and protector of the

universe. He has 10 incarnations or

avatars and is often depicted as having

blue skin and holding four objects. As

you approach Ankorwatt, you are greeted

by a massive moat and a grand entrance

gate adorned with intricate carvings of

mythological creatures and deities. The

main temple rises like a towering

mountain with intricate carvings and

reliefs that tell the stories of Hindu

mythology and the history of the Chimera

Empire. The temple's galleries are lined

with stunning bass reliefs depicting

scenes of battles, ceremonies, and daily

life in ancient Cambodia. At the heart

of the complex is the central sanctuary,

a massive pyramid-like structure

surrounded by smaller temples and

courtyards. The sanctuary is considered

the most sacred part of the temple

adorned with intricately carved statues

and images of Hindu gods and goddesses.

It was an incredible feat of human

ingenuity. But yet in 1187, the Muslim

commander from Egypt, Saladine, became

fed up with the Christian rule of

Jerusalem. So he declared a holy war

across the Muslim world in order to

reconquer Jerusalem from the Christians.

The battle occurred on a scorching hot

day in the hills near the Sea of

Galilee. Saladine's forces numbered

around 20,000. The crusaders had a much

smaller force of around 12,000 knights,

soldiers, and civilians under the aptly

named king, King Guy. The battle began

with skirmishes between the two sides,

but soon escalated into a fullscale

engagement. Saladine's forces could use

their superior cavalry to encircle the

crusaders, who could not break through

the Muslim lines. The heat and thirst

soon took a toll on the crusaders, who

were weakened and disoriented. The

Muslim forces took advantage of the

situation. They launched a fierce

attack, breaking through the crusader

lines and capturing many knights. King

Guy and a small group of knights were

able to escape the battlefield. Still,

the majority of the crusader army was

destroyed. The loss of the battle was a

severe blow to the Christian forces in

the region, and it paved the way for

Saladine's conquest of Jerusalem.

But the Christians weren't going to

allow that. So guess what happened?

Another crusade. This time the three

most powerful monarchs at the time,

Emperor Frederick I of the Holy Roman

Empire, King Richard I of England and

King Philip II of France, sent their

best armies to reconquer the Holy City

of Jerusalem. However, all the force in

the world couldn't retake Jerusalem from

the grips of Saladine, leaving the Third

Crusade to be a

failure. Genghis was born to a mother

kidnapped by his father and forced into

marriage. Legend holds that he came into

this world clutching a blood clot in his

right hand. Before he turned 10, his

father was poisoned to death by an enemy

clan. Genghis' clan then deserted him,

his mother, and his six siblings to

avoid having to feed them. However, he

soon began to make friends with the

other clans throughout the Mongolian

mountainside. By 1206, he had united all

the various tribes, uniting 1 million

people. For the time, Genis was quite

progressive. He made it illegal to sell

and kidnap women, banished the idea of

enslavement of any Mongol, and even

allowed freedom of religion. When it

came to war, though, Genghis was as

barbaric as the next one. His first

campaign was against the Shisha Kingdom

in 129. His army of mostly cavalry men

on horses quickly outnumbered and

destroyed the kingdom. His next target

was the Xin dynasty in China. From 1211

to 1214, the outnumbered Mongols ravaged

the countryside, causing food shortages,

resulting in the Xinn Army killing tens

of thousands of their own peasants just

so their elites could live. In 1214, the

Mongols besieged the capital of Zongu,

now Beijing, and burnt it to the ground.

In the early 13th century, King Jon was

facing increasing pressure from his

barrens who were demanding greater

rights and protections under the law. In

response to their demands, Jon agreed to

meet with the barrens and negotiate a

settlement. The result of these

negotiations was the Magna Carta, a

document that set out a series of rights

and freedoms that the king could not

violate. Among these rights were the

right to a fair trial, the right to due

process of law, and the right to be

protected from arbitrary arrest and

imprisonment. The Magna Carta also

established the principle of habius

corpus, which required the government to

produce a prisoner in court and provide

a lawful reason for their detention.

This principle has been a cornerstone of

modern legal systems around the world.

Then in 1217, there was another crusade.

This time led by King Andrew II of

Hungary and Duke Leopold V 6th of

Austria with the same goal in mind to

take over Jerusalem. The crusaders

successfully captured the city of

Dametta in 1219, but they could not

advance further into Egypt. After a

series of setbacks, including capture

and imprisonment of many crusaders, the

Christian forces were forced to abandon

their campaign in Egypt. The crusaders

eventually agreed to a treaty with the

Muslim forces, allowing them to leave

Egypt unharmed, but without achieving

their ultimate

goal. Genghaskhan wasn't done, though.

in 1219 went to war against the Quzam

Empire in present-day Turk Manistan,

Usbekiststan, Afghanistan, and Iran.

During his raids, the Mongol hordes

swept through one city after another,

taking over the likes of Burkara,

Samarind, and Arjench. Skilled workers

such as carpenters and jewelers were

usually saved, while aristocrats and

resisting soldiers were killed.

Unskilled workers, meanwhile, were often

used as human shields during the next

assault. No one knows with any certainty

how many people died during

Genghaskhan's wars, in part because the

Mongols propagated their vicious image

as a way of spreading terror. At

Genghaskhan's death, he controlled a

massive territory from the Sea of Japan

to the Caspian Sea. However, even more

impressively, around 8% of the men in

South Asia descend from Genghask Khan

today. In 1228, Emperor Frederick II of

the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer

the Holy Land, but failed, ending the

Sixth Crusade. Of course, the Holy Roman

Empire couldn't be the only one

crusading. King Louis the 9inth of

France in 1248 decided to start the

seventh crusade to retake Jerusalem but

he was taken prisoner by the Muslims and

forced to pay a hefty ransom as he

retreated. However, that didn't deter

King Louis the 9th because in 1270 he

was at it again trying to free Jerusalem

from the grips of Muslim rule but this

time he died of dysentery. Once King

Louis the 9inth died, his troops

retreated, creating the eighth and final

time there was a

crusade in England. Though in 1295,

England was making a diplomatic headway.

In a letter summoning Parliament, King

Edward I wrote, "Since the most

righteous law of the emperors ordains

that what touches all should be approved

by all, so it appears that common

dangers should be met by remedies agreed

upon in common." As King Edward, I would

then request a tenth of the incomes of

nobles and an 11th of the income of

knights, creating one of the first

parliaments we would see in the new

age. While down in Africa, a leader of

extravagant wealth, Mansam Musa, was

gaining power on his famous Haj, a

religious Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca

that every Muslim should make at least

once in his life. Mansam Musa with his

caravan of camels and an army of

scholars gave vast amounts of gold to

any poor person he saw. Hence crashing

all of the economies in northern Africa

due to the inflation of gold. When

Mansam Musa returned to Mali, he made it

his life purpose to make Timbuktu the

Muslim capital of knowledge. So Mansam

Musa invested heavily in building the

University of Sor. Various Islamic faith

scholars quickly made their way to Sanor

to study Islamic theology, law and

literature with over 1 million

manuscripts. Mansamusa was also a very

religious man with a policy that he

commissioned a new mosque every Friday.

However, sadly though, only the

Jingerabber mosque in Timbuktu stood the

test of time.

In the Americas though, another built on

riches was being created. As Aztec

legend has it, the god Weeds poachi

directed them to build where they saw an

eagle perched on a cactus eating a

snake. When they saw this exact scene on

an island located in what was once Lake

Texoko, they interpreted it as a sign

from their god and founded Tenno Chidlan

on that island. As time passed,

Tenochidlon started to build impressive

temples such as the great temple. The

great temple comprised of two main

structures dedicated to the gods

Wheatilapoi and Lelay. The city itself

was most fascinating. It was designed

with a complex system of canals and

causeways to help control flooding and

facilitate transport across the city.

while they started to farm on floating

gardens known as chinampas on the

shallow waters of Lake Tex Cocoa which

were used to grow crops such as maize

beans and

squash. As Mali and the Aztecs were

building their cities, England and

France were in war for 100 years. The

origins of the conflict lay with the

status of the duche of Gaen. In basic

capitalistic terms, this was owned by

the British crown. However, the land

itself was in France. The second reason

was that the last direct descendant of

Charlemagne, King Charles IV, died in

1328. So, the next closest relative was

Edward III, the king of England. So,

King Edward III claimed the rule of

France in

1337, which was not liked by the French

people. As the petty, erratic hundred

years war raged on, the people of the

world had to face a pandemic like no

other, the bubanic plague. As the

Italian poet Giovani Bokeacio wrote, "At

the beginning of the malady, certain

swellings either on the groin or under

the armpits waxed to the bigness of a

common apple, others to the size of an

egg, some more and some less, and these

the vulgar named plague boils."

Historians believe this pandemic was

spread by rats traveling through ships

across Europe and merchants throughout

the Silk Road. No matter how this plague

was produced, around 75 to 200 million

people died. With the death of so many

people, especially the poor, land owners

and nobles were required to allow

farmers to keep more of the product they

farmed, leading to more workers

rights. In China though, a group of

rebels known as the Red Turbans revolted

against the Mongol rulers of China. The

Red Turbans were led by a man named Zu

Yen Jang. Born into a poor peasant

family, Zu built a strong following

among the rebel forces and eventually

emerged as their leader. In

1368, Zu declared himself emperor and

established the Ming dynasty, marking

the beginning of a new era in Chinese

history.

In 1428 at the age of 16, Joan left her

home in the village of Dommy and

traveled to the court of Charles IIth

where she asked for permission to lead

the French army against the English. At

first, her request was met with

skepticism and disbelief. Still, Joan

persisted and eventually won the support

of the French commanders. Joan's first

major military victory came in the siege

of Orleans in 1429. She led the French

troops in a series of daring attacks on

the English forces and she broke the

siege and liberated the city. This

victory boosted French morale and helped

to turn the tide of the war in their

favor. Over the next several months,

Joan led the French army to victories

against the English, including the

Battle of Pate in June 1429.

However, her success also made her

enemies in the English and French court.

In 1430, she was captured by the English

and put on trial for heresy and

witchcraft. Joan was subjected to a

grueling trial. She was accused of

various crimes, including dressing in

men's clothing, practicing sorcery, and

hearing voices. Despite the odds against

her, Joan remained steadfast in her

faith and her belief that she was

carrying out God's will. In the end,

Joan was found guilty and sentenced to

death by burning at stake. She was

executed on May 30th,

1431 at 19. Then 20 years later in the

battle of Castellian, Charles IIIth of

France led a French army which defeated

the English army, effectively ending

English territorial claims in

France. While back in the great city of

Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire was

declining, weakened by years of war,

political instability, and economic

turmoil. In contrast, the Ottoman Empire

led by Sultan Memed II was on the rise

and the Sultan saw an opportunity to

expand his empire and gain control of

the strategic city of Constantinople. By

1453, Memed II led an army of 80,000

soldiers, including elite Janisary

troops and a powerful artillery force to

besiege Constantinople. The Byzantine

defenders, led by Emperor Constantine XI

11th, were vastly outnumbered and

outgunned. They faced a seemingly

impossible task to hold off the Ottoman

assault. The Ottomans bombarded the city

with artillery for nearly 2 months,

causing extensive damage to the walls

and fortifications. The Byzantine

defenders, meanwhile, struggled to

maintain morale and keep their troops

fed and supplied. Then on the fateful

day, May 29th, 1453, the Ottomans

launched a massive assault on the city.

Climbing up covered by siege towers,

they were able to breach the walls and

gain access to the city. Despite putting

up a valiant defense, the Byzantine

defenders were overwhelmed, and the

Ottomans were able to storm the city and

capture the capital, causing the great

Byzantine Empire to fall. In

1453, all paths no longer led to Rome

and all traces back to the Empire of

Caesar were erased. It was replaced by

the beginning of utter Ottoman

domination in the region, ushering in a

new era of Turkish power and influence

in the

Mediterranean. While the Byzantines

might have been falling, the Russians

were finally gaining their independence.

At the time, the Mongol Empire was

ruling over Russia, demanding that

various Russian towns pay tribute or

face the wrath of the Mongols. However,

in 1472, Ivan the Great refused to pay

such tribute. Over the next several

years, he built up his military strength

and was able to drive out the Mongol

garrisons from various cities and towns

throughout Russia. In 1480, the Mongols

demanded that Ivan pay tribute or face

military action. But after a tense

standoff, they finally retreated. Ivan's

victory was the beginning of a free

Russia and the decline of the Mongolian

Empire. Then in 1492, as Christopher

Columbus sailed, the ocean blue, the

Europeans discovered the new world. set

initially on finding a path to India.

Instead, he landed on an island in the

Bahamas, which he aptly named San

Salvador. When he and his crew set up

camp, he met the Lucayians, skilled

fishermen and farmers, who welcomed him

and his crew and provided them with food

and

supplies. While back in Europe, a golden

age of culture was upon us. In 1503,

Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa.

Da Vinci's biographer Walter Isacson

says, "The Mona Lisa to me is the

greatest emotional painting ever done.

The way the smile flickers makes it a

work of art and science because Leonardo

understood optics, the muscles of the

lips, and how light strikes the eye. All

of it goes into making the Mona Lisa's

smile so mysterious and elusive." In

1504, Michelangelo sculpted David.

Michelangelo would say, "In every block

of marble, I see a statue as plain as

though it stood before me, shaped and

perfect in attitude and action. I have

only to he away the rough walls that

imprison the lovely apparition to reveal

it to the other eyes as mine see it."

While in 1506, Michelangelo was painting

the magnificent painting of the cyine

chapel. While in the political world,

Nicolo Makavelli is one of, if not the

most influential pieces of literature we

have today. The prince is a political

manifesto that comments on the past

civilizations we've heard about. In this

video, Mchavelli writes, "It is much

safer to be feared than loved because

love is preserved by the link of

obligation, which owing to the beastness

of men is broken at every opportunity

for their advantage. But fear preserves

you by a dread of punishment which never

fails. Think about the ordinary farmer.

Think about the man who spends

generations of their life farming,

giving heavy taxes to a noble lord for

doing nothing except protecting them.

Why won't the farmers rebel? It's

because they're afraid of what would

happen without their leaders. Without

the elites, the Huns or the Mongols can

come to your farm and destroy you on

their own. So, you live in fear as to

what might happen to you, leaving you to

give your wheat to said leader.

[Music]

Martin Luther though didn't just report

on the basics of human nature. Martin

wanted to make a difference and was sick

of the Catholic Church. At the time, the

Catholic Church was selling indulgences,

which were certificates that people

could purchase to reduce the amount of

time they would spend in purgatory after

they died. Luther believed this practice

was corrupt and went against the Bible's

teachings which emphasized the

importance of repentance and faith over

material wealth. In protest, he wrote a

series of 95 thesis or arguments

challenging the church's authority and

calling for reform. On October 31st,

1517, Luther nailed his 95 thesis to the

door of the castle church in Wittenberg,

which was a common way of announcing a

public debate or discussion. Luther's 95

thesis sparked a debate within the

church and among European scholars and

theologians. Some people agreed with his

criticisms of the church, while others

saw him as a heretic and a threat to the

established order. The beginning of

Protestantism was upon

[Music]

us. In 1519 though, the Spanish

concistadors under the leadership of

Hernand Cortez arrived on the Aztec

shores. They were greeted by the Aztecs

who gave gifts of gold and silver of

incredible wealth to the Spanish as they

believed that the Spaniards were

emissaries of the god Ketzel Colottel.

However, Cortez soon revealed his true

intentions to conquer the Aztec Empire

and claim its wealth for Spain. Over

several years, Cortez and his forces

engaged in a series of battles with the

Aztecs. Marked by intense violence and

brutality, the Spanish were aided by

their superior military technology,

including guns and cannons, and by the

support of indigenous allies, who were

the enemies of the Aztecs. Despite being

vastly outnumbered, Cortez and his men

made significant gains against the

Aztecs. Eventually laying siege to their

capital city of Tinoidlon. After months

of fighting, the city fell to the

Spanish in 1521 and the Aztec Empire was

effectively destroyed. Then following

the strategy of Cortez, Francisco

Pizarro led an expedition that conquered

the Incan Empire in present-day Peru.

Though the violence was authoritarian,

the biohazards were even more demanding.

The Europeans, due to having survived

illnesses such as the bubanic plague and

smallpox, developed immunity to many of

these diseases that they've one way or

another spread to the native people,

essentially over time killing them off.

Under Sullean the Magnificent's

leadership, the Ottoman Empire became

one of the most powerful and influential

empires in world history. Sullean was a

brilliant strategist and military leader

and his reign was marked by significant

conquests and political achievements.

Like many other leaders, he set out to

conquer the world. By the end of his

reign, Sullean the Magnificent presided

over a vast empire that stretched from

southeastern Europe to the deserts of

Arabia and from the shores of the

Mediterranean to the plains of Persia.

His conquests included the capture of

Belgrade in Budapest in Europe,

Jerusalem and Mecca in the Middle East,

and Tabri and Baghdad in Persia. The

Ottomans also became the dominant naval

power in the Mediterranean with control

over North African cities such as Alers

and Tunis creating the dominant Ottoman

[Music]

civilization. But yet all things fall

when one is in love. And the murderhappy

King Henry had fallen in love with Anne

Boland and was desperate to marry her.

However, Katherine of Aragon was still

alive and the Catholic Church did not

recognize divorce. Henry's solution was

to break away from the Catholic Church

and established the Church of England

with himself as the head. In 1534, Henry

passed the Act of Supremacy, which

declared that the king, not the Pope,

was the supreme head of the Church of

England, leaving the Catholic Church to

be angry and excommunicate Henry VIIth,

leaving a schism between the Church of

England and the Catholic Church even

today. Ivan the Terrible is now the

ruler of Russia. In the early years of

his reign, Ivan enjoyed significant

success, launching military campaigns

against neighboring kingdoms and

expanding Russia's borders. He also

oversaw the construction of magnificent

public works, including St. Basil's

Cathedral in

Moscow. However, as Ivan grew older, he

became increasingly paranoid and

erratic. He launched a series of brutal

purges and executions, targeting anyone

he perceived as threatening his power.

He also had a volatile temper, lashing

out at advisers and nobles who dared to

question his decisions. In 1560, Ivan

suffered a devastating personal loss

when his beloved wife Anastasia died.

This event seems to have triggered a

significant psychological breakdown and

Ivan became increasingly unstable and

violent. He launched a series of bloody

campaigns against his own people,

including the notorious Opri Nina, a

campaign of terror and repression that

killed thousands of Russians and

destroyed countless homes and families.

Truly deserving of the name terrible.

While Russia was going through that,

England was on the rise with the start

of the English Renaissance under the

leadership of Queen Elizabeth I.

Elizabeth and playwrights dominated the

scene, creating written words that were

poetic in language and poignant in

meeting. They've even written plays

about people we've already talked about.

William Shakespeare wrote many plays

including histories. Julius Caesar which

was about the assassination of Julius

Caesar, King John which was about the

Hundred Years War and Henry VIIIth was a

play about showing human needs to gain

power. Other notable playwrights who

filled the scene were Christopher Marlo,

Ben Johnson and John

Webster. While on the other side of the

world, the English colony of Jamestown

was forming in Virginia under the

Virginia Trading Company. Slightly up

north, Samuel de Champlain was

establishing the French colony of Quebec

[Music]

Canada. While back in the old world,

they were having a new era of fighting,

the 30 Years War. This time it was

between the Protestants and the

Catholics. It began in 1618 when the

Holy Roman Emperor attempted to impose

Catholicism on the Protestant population

of Bohemia. The Bohemians rebelled and

soon the conflict spread throughout the

region. Over the next 30 years, armies

marched and counter marched across

Europe, leaving a trail of destruction

and devastation. The war was

characterized by brutal sieges, bloody

battles, and atrocities committed by

both sides. At its height, the war

involved most of the major powers of

Europe, including France, Spain, Sweden,

and the Holy Roman Empire. It was fought

along religious, political, and economic

lines, with each side vying for

dominance and control. The war finally

ended in 1648 with the signing of the

peace of West Failia. The treaty

recognized the Dutch Republic's

independence, established the individual

state sovereignty within the Holy Roman

Empire, and ended the religious

conflicts that fueled the

[Music]

war. While in China, the Ming court was

plagued by corruption, factionalism, and

economic decline. The emperor at the

time, Chongzen, faced mounting pressure

from his advisers to strengthen the

military and defend against the Manchu

threat. However, his efforts were

hindered by infighting among officials

and a lack of resources. In 1644, the

Manchu army led by Prince Dorgon

launched a massive invasion of China.

The Ming army, weakened by years of

neglect and corruption, was no match for

the highly disciplined and skilled

Manchu forces. The Manchus quickly

conquered Beijing and installed their

puppet emperor, ending the Ming dynasty,

continuing the cycle of dynasties in

China. While in Spain, King Charles II

died without having any heirs, creating

a real political crisis of who should be

the leader. King Louis I 14th of France

supported his grandson Philillip as the

rightful heir to the Spanish throne

hoping to secure French influence over

Spain and its territories. On the other

hand, Emperor Liupold I of Austria

supported the candidacy of Archduke

Charles, a member of the Habsburg

dynasty who was seen as a potential ally

against French expansionism. The

conflict soon escalated into a major war

with many European powers taking sides

and forming alliances. The principal

belligerent were France and Spain

against a coalition of Austria, Great

Britain, the Dutch Republic, Portugal,

and several other minor powers. The war

ended with the treaty of Utrect in

1713 which recognized Philip as king of

Spain but required him to renounce any

claims to the French throne and seed

some territories to Great Britain and

Austria. The Treaty of Rastat signed the

following year officially ended the

[Music]

war. In 1707, the acts of the union were

passed by the parliaments of England and

Scotland, which united the two kingdoms

into a single political entity known as

Great Britain, hence creating the legal

foothold that is Great Britain. However,

Scotland took a disliking to this. There

were protests and uprisings in the years

following the Union, including the

Jacobite risings of 1715 and

1745, which aimed to restore the

Scottish monarchy and independence.

[Music]

Then on July 4th,

1776, a group of American patriots stood

in a room in Philadelphia signing a

document that would say the words, "We

hold these truths to be self-evident,

that all men are created equal, that

they are endowed by their creator with

certain unalienable rights, that among

these are life, liberty, and the pursuit

of happiness. War in the Americas was

on.

But back in Europe, the tone was quite

different. Adam Smith published the

famous book, The Wealth of Nations: The

Foundations of Lz's Fair Economics,

which essentially says the market would

balance itself out over time. In

Austria, Mosart was performing his

magnumopus, the Hafner Serenade.

Mosart's Hafner Serenade is a charming

and elegant work featuring courtly dance

music and light lyrical melodies. Its

graceful melodies, subtle harmonies, and

elegant instrumental writing

characterize

[Music]

it. As the war continued, King George

III sent his armies of the masses over

to America. Though the colonists had

little military training, their

knowledge of the terrain and guerilla

tactics made them nearly invisible. At

the same time, the Red Army coats were

easy to see for the Americans. In the

summer of 1781, George Washington and

French General Rosh Shambo marched their

forces south to Virginia, where they

laid siege to Cornwallis and his army at

Yorktown. The British were trapped and

could not escape by land or sea. The

siege dragged on for weeks. The American

and French forces bombarded the British

with artillery. They dug trenches to

inch their way closer to the British

defensive, the French Navy defeated the

British Navy in a crucial naval battle

off the coast of Virginia. Cutting off

Cornwallis's only escape route by sea.

On October 14th, 1781, the American and

French forces launched a massive assault

on the British defenses. The British

fought valiantly, but were vastly

outnumbered and outgunned, and they soon

began to falter. On October 19th,

Cornwallis surrendered his army to

Washington, effectively ending the war.

The victory at Yorktown was a decisive

moment in the war, and it marked the end

of British rule in America and the

beginning of a new

[Music]

experiment. With America finally being

free from the totally tyrannical grips

of Britain, they had one issue. How were

they going to lead? Were they going to

make General George Washington their

monarch? Therefore, democracy was

chosen. However, Plato made a good point

many years ago that the common man was

incapable and not wise enough to pick a

better leader to lead them to success.

So the American founded constitutional

convention came up with this idea of the

electoral college where the common man

would vote for a particular person who

would then have a say in who could be

president. So instead of the president

being directly voted on by the people,

they would vote on elites who would then

vote for the president directly.

The French then noticed how well the

American Revolution went. At the time,

the French were ruled by King Louis V

16th and his wife, Queen Marie

Antuinette. As Queen Marie Antwanette

told the peasants, "Let them eat cake."

The people of France got together. They

decided they wanted more say in how the

country was run. and they formed a group

called the National Assembly and started

making new laws to give them more

rights. One of the most famous events of

the French Revolution was the storming

of the Bastile. This was a prison that

represented the king's power and the

people wanted to show that they were not

afraid of him. They broke into the

prison and freed the prisoners which

started a revolution throughout France.

Many influential people lost their heads

during the revolution, including King

Louis V 16th and his wife, Queen Marie

Antuinette. The people were tired of

being ruled by a king and queen who

didn't care about them, and they wanted

to create a new system where everyone

would have a say, and the people of

France voted in Maximleian Robes Pierre.

In 1789, Rose Pierre was elected as a

delegate to the estates general, which

was convened to address France's

financial crisis. He quickly emerged as

a leading voice in the National

Assembly, advocating for the ordinary

people's rights and opposing the

aristocracy's power. As the revolution

continued though, Robes Pierre became

increasingly radical in his views.

Advocating for the execution of King

Louis V 16th and the establishment of a

republic, he was elected to the powerful

committee of public safety in

1793. Tasked with protecting the

revolution and rooting out enemies of

the state. Under Robes Pierre's

leadership, the committee launched a

period of intense repression known as

the reign of terror. Thousands of people

were arrested, tried, and executed for

crimes against the revolution. Robes

Pierre became known as a ruthless and

uncompromising figure. However, Robes

Pierre's power began to wne as the

people grew tired of the violence and

the instability of the revolution. In

1794, he was arrested and imprisoned

along with his closest allies. On July

28th,

1794, Robespierre was taken to the

guillotine and

executed. The execution marked the end

of the reign of terror and democracy for

now in France. Instead, they moved to a

directory. A directory is a government

led by a five member executive council

known as the directory which was chosen

by the council of elders. This

legislative body was also part of the

new government. The directory was meant

to serve as a moderating force balancing

the interests of the various factions

that had emerged during the

revolution. However, the directory

concept wasn't successful as well. So,

General Napoleon Bonapart decided to

overthrow the government and begin his

conquests to take over the

world. So, off Napoleon went to conquer

much of Europe. In 1805, Napoleon

defeated a combined Austro-Russian army

at the Battle of Ostlitz, solidifying

his position as one of Europe's most

powerful leaders. He then conquered much

of the continent, including Spain,

Portugal, and the Netherlands. In 1812,

Napoleon invaded Russia with a massive

army. Still, the campaign proved

disastrous and his forces were decimated

by the harsh Russian winter. The defeat

marked the beginning of Napoleon's

downfall. In 1814, the European powers

allied against Napoleon and invaded

France, forcing him to abdicate his

throne and go into exile on the island

of Elba. However, he returned to France

in 1815 in what became known as the 100

days and briefly regained power before

being defeated by the British and

Prussian armies at the Battle of

Waterlue. While back in the Americas,

Simone Bolivar was on his military

campaigns to free Latin American

countries from the grasp of the Spanish

colonial rule. Believar began his

military campaigns in Venezuela in 1810

where he led a successful uprising

against the Spanish colonial

authorities. He then moved on to

Colombia where he won a series of

important victories against the Spanish

including the battle of Boyaka in 1819

which secured the independence of

Colombia. Bolavar then turned his

attention to Ecuador and Peru where he

won a series of decisive battles that

helped secure both countries

independence. He captured the city of

Lima in

1824 effectively ending Spanish control

of Peru. Bolivar's final military

campaign was in Bolivia where he led the

fight for independence against the

Spanish in 1825. Bolivia was named in

honor of Bolivar who played a critical

role in its

[Music]

liberation. In 1848, two men had an idea

that would spark debate worldwide. Karl

Marx and Frederick Engles wrote the book

called the Communist Manifesto which is

a book about the idea of communism where

instead of a capitalistic system where

the nobles or bgeoa own everything and

the workers and proletariats work for

slave wages instead what if the

proletariats own the means of production

and all work together as Markx and

Engles would write let the ruling

classes tremble at a communistic

revolution

The proletarians would have nothing to

lose but their chains and they have and

they'd to win. They would also write the

need for a constantly expanding market

for its products chases the bourgeoisi

over the whole surface of the globe. It

must nestle everywhere, settle

everywhere, establish connections

everywhere. Right after the writing of

the Communist Manifesto began a period

in Europe known as the scramble for

Africa, it all began in the 1870s when

European countries began to explore the

interior of Africa, looking for new

territories to claim and resources to

exploit. At first, the European powers

were cautious, sending explorers and

missionaries into Africa to establish

trade networks and alliances with local

leaders. However, as competition

increased, the European powers became

more aggressive in their tactics. They

used military force to establish

colonies and protectorates, and they

engaged in diplomatic maneuvering and

propaganda campaigns to gain the support

of local populations. One of the most

ruthless tactics the European powers

used was dividing Africa into artificial

borders and creating new ethnic and

linguistic divisions. This created

tensions and conflicts between different

African groups which the Europeans used

to their advantage creating a European

stronghold over the continent of Africa

to increase their profits. The scramble

for Africa came to an end as a result of

several factors including changing

international politics, economic

realities, and rising African

nationalism. One of the key factors that

contributed to the end of the scramble

for Africa was the changing balance of

power in Europe. By the early 20th

century, European powers were

increasingly focused on competition with

each other, particularly in Europe

itself and were less interested in

acquiring new colonies in Africa. This

was due in part to the growing tensions

between European powers that would

eventually lead to the outbreak of World

War I in

1914. Because on June 28th, 1914, a shot

was heard around the world with the

assassination of Archduke France

Ferdinand. France Ferdinand was the heir

to the throne of Austria Hungary and his

assassination by a Serbian nationalist

named Gabrielo Princip sparked a

diplomatic crisis that quickly escalated

into a global conflict. In the aftermath

of the assassination, AustriaHungary

declared war on Serbia, triggering a

complex web of alliances and treaties

that drew other countries into the

conflict. Germany, an ally of

AustriaHungary, declared war on Russia

and France, while Great Britain, which

had a treaty with Belgium, declared war

on Germany. Within weeks, most of Europe

was embroiled in a brutal and

devastating conflict. In November 1918,

after four years of brutal fighting, the

Allied powers and the central powers

agreed to an armistice, effectively

bringing an end to the war and the

demise of the Ottoman Empire. On

November 11th, the armistice went into

effect and the guns fell silent across

Europe.

World War II. The peace was short-lived

because a man named Adolf Hitler invaded

Poland. Like Alexander the Great, Julius

Caesar, Trejan, Attilla the Hun,

Genghask Khan, Napoleon Bonapart, and

Sullean the Great, Adolf Hitler wanted

to establish an empire for his nation

and his people. Adolf had dreams of

building an empire larger than anything

that was ever created. He wanted to make

the Roman Empire look like nothing.

However, for the sake of the world and

especially those Hitler viewed as

undesirable vermin. In April

1945, Soviet forces began a massive

assault on Berlin. After weeks of

intense fighting, the city fell on May

2nd and German forces surrendered.

Meanwhile, Allied forces were closing in

from the west. And on May 7th, Germany

signed an unconditional surrender,

officially ending the war in Europe. A

few months later, after the bombings of

Nagasaki and Hiroshima, Japan

surrendered as well, leaving the war to

be over.

[Music]

From World War II on, the world has

faced a technological revolution. With

Alan Turing's invention of the computer

during the war, the world became global.

For 50 years, America and the Soviet

Union were at war. despite the fact that

they were on two totally different

continents. In 1969, Neil Armstrong

landed on the moon, saying, "That's one

small step for

man, one giant leap for mankind."

As the years on the world has become

increasingly smaller, computers have

become more affordable. Cell phones

changed the way we communicated with one

another. Let's go back to the story of a

man named Gilgamesh on his quest for

immortality. At the end of the poem,

Gilgamesh realizes life which you look

for, you will never find. For when gods

created man, they let death be his share

and life withheld in their own hands.

The history of human civilizations is an

incomplete book, constantly being

updated. Some things will never change.

However, humans will always die. Empires

will always rise and fall. The masses

will always clamor towards safety.

Transcript

The history of our story began long

ago. At one point in time around 3

billion years ago, we were floating

around as little tiny atoms in the

little petri dish of the world. Fast

forward to around 6 million years ago,

and we see the emergence of the first

hominids, the family of primates that

include humans. 1.9 million years ago,

Homo erectus was the first species to

leave Africa and colonize other parts of

the world. They had larger brains than

their primate

ancestors. Around 400,000 years ago, the

first evidence of the Neanderthalss.

Their bodies were adapted to the cold

environments of Europe and Western Asia.

Their distinctive facial features were

some of the most humanlike ever seen.

Then came us, the only surviving species

of the homogeneous. But how did homo

sapiens rise into a global dominance?

Through the mechanism of

[Music]

civilization. We begin our story in the

fertile lands of Mesopotamia in 4,000

B.CE. Nestled between the great Tigris

and Euphrates rivers and the Sumerian

city of Uric. Instead of relying on

hunting and gathering like our ancestors

of the past, the citizens of Uric were

able to develop a way to harvest cereal

grains like wheat and barley. However,

turning cereal grains into edible foods

took a lot of work. In the beginning,

they had to use an invention called a

handmill which consisted of two stones.

As the grains were crushed between the

two stones, the flour was collected in a

container and stored for future use.

This was the start of something great.

This complex, strenuous process was our

modern world's first example of

agriculture. We no longer depended on

hunting animals or picking berries for

our food. Rather than using human

ingenuity, we can create our own food

source. This allowed Eric to prosper

into a place with over 50,000 residents.

However, this change did have a change

on the human body. The average height of

men drastically shrunk from 5'9 to 5'3.

And for women, they shrunk on average

from 5'3 to 5 ft. Instead of being the

super athletes we were of the past, we

were smaller, less noticeable farmers.

People also became landlocked, changing

the very essence of what it means to be

human. In the early 3000 B.CE. According

to legend, King Gilgamesh began his rule

as a Sumerian king of his region.

However, by the end of 3000 B.CE, the

Acadians ousted the Sumerianss. Sargon

the Great took power and conquered all

of Sumeriia.

While in the Indis Valley in modern-day

Pakistan, a new civilization was

growing. The Indis Valley civilization

3,300 to,300 B.CEE was most notable for

its highly advanced toilet system. The

toilets were built with a seat and a

chute that led to the underground

drainage system. The sewage was then

carried away from the homes through a

network of covered drains, preventing

disease spread. The waste was treated

and disposed outside of city limits,

helping to keep the cities clean and

hygienic. While in Egypt, they were more

consumed with building pyramids than

basic human plumbing. This was because

in ancient Egyptian religion, it was

believed that when a pharaoh was to die

in the physical world, his spirit would

continue to live on in the afterlife in

which they would continue to rule in

perpetuity and where they would be

worshiped by the living. Inside these

pyramids, the pharaoh's body was

carefully mummified, a process believed

to preserve his physical form and help

ensure his spirit's journey to the

afterlife. The pyramid was also filled

with offerings and treasures intended to

provide the pharaoh with the resources

he would need in the afterlife. Every

pharaoh wanted to make sure they were

immortal. They wanted to succeed in the

afterlife. They wanted to be worshiped

forever. That's why it was an utmost

priority for Egyptian pharaohs to build

pyramids for themselves when laid to

rest. It started when Pharaoh Joser 2667

to 2648 B.CE TE built the step pyramid

at Sakara followed by Nefpharu 2613 to

2589 B.CEE who built several pyramids

such as the bent pyramid and the red

pyramid. Then came the pharaoh Kufu 2589

to 2566 B.CE who built the famous Great

Pyramid of Giza in a laborintensive

20-year process, one that the world

still marvels at today. Kufu was then

followed by Pharaoh's Kafre and Menar

who built the slightly smaller second

and third pyramids of Giza

respectively. While over in China in the

year 2100 B.CEE the first Chinese

dynasty was upon us. Like the people of

Mesopotamia, the Chinese were ever

reliant on agriculture, producing rice,

wheat, and barley among other crops.

However, as legend has it, the Yellow

River flooded. These massive floods

would destroy all the crops, leading to

massive famine and suffering. However,

not all was to be lost because Yu, the

great was on his way. Yu was so

distraught by this problem that he would

spend his days traveling up and down the

Yellow River. He found ways to divert

the rivers by building levies and dikes

so that he could regulate the waterways.

Then after 13 years of hard work, the

floods could no longer wreak havoc on

the land. The people were overjoyed and

Yu was hailed as a savior. That was the

start of the first Chinese dynasty, the

Ja dynasty. Though the accuracy of this

tale is questioned by historians, it

does establish an important precedent.

The idea is that power ought to follow

one's merit. An individual who deserves

absolute power shall have absolute

power. This idea would shape the world

for years to come and cause the people

of ancient China to follow him to create

the first ever Chinese

[Music]

dynasty. While back over in Mesopotamia

around 1772 B.CE, E, a Babylonian king

named King Hammurabi created the basis

of the legal system as we know it today.

Hammurabi ordered the creation of a 7-ft

tall, 2- foot wide stone slab. Written

on it was a system of 282 laws that each

citizen of his kingdom was to follow.

Such laws included various laws such as

law one, if a man brings an accusation

against another man charging him with

murder but cannot prove it, the accuser

shall be put to death. Law 196, if a man

destroys the eye of another man, they

shall destroy his eye. Law 197 says, if

he breaks another man's bone, they shall

break it. Law 199. If he destroys the

eye of a man's slave or breaks the bone

of a man's slave, he shall pay 1/ half

his price. However, what King Hammurabi

did was create a society based on laws.

He laid out strict laws, placing people

into certain casts of life and value.

Everyone was worth a different amount

based on what class they were in

society. There was no illusion of

equality in ancient Babylon. Instead, it

was pretty clear the value of a noble's

bone was worth more than a plebeians,

which in turn was worth more than a

slaves, an idea we continue to see

throughout

history. While in modern-day Turkey, a

lesserknown civilization came to power,

the Hittites Empire under the

charismatic rule of the leader Learnis,

1680 to 1650 B.CE. CE. He was a skilled

ruler with a single vision in mind,

uniting the Hittite citystates under a

single rule. The Barnes led his army

from city to city, conquering

neighboring citystates and making

alliances with their leaders. He was a

shrewd diplomat and he used his

diplomatic skills to win over the hearts

and minds of the people. Eventually,

Learnas became the ruler of all the

Hittite citystates and established the

empire. He was a just and fair ruler and

was loved by his people. Under his rule,

the Hittites prospered and their

territory expanded, leaving them right

next to their neighbors in

Egypt. While in modern-day Greece, a

collection of citystates emerged on the

European continent. Mason Greece 1600

B.CE to 1100 B.CE De was dominated by an

elite warrior society and consisted of a

network of palace centered states that

developed rigid hierarchial political,

social, and economic systems. At the

head of this society was the king.

However, unlike a unified civilization,

each city was on its own. A city-state

is a city that with its surrounding

territory forms an independent state.

The development of citystates such as

Troy, Mysini, and Pilus start to grow.

The first remnants of the Greek written

language known as linear B also started

to emerge. The first record of any

Indo-Uropean Greek record we have today.

[Music]

While back in Egypt, they started to

create a social pyramid of another type,

the Egyptian social pyramid. Like the

Great Pyramid of Giza, it is more

prominent at the bottom and tinier at

the top. At the bottom lays the peasants

and the slaves. They were responsible

for doing all the manual labor. They

worked on the lands. They would spend

the day in and day out farming,

producing food for all of Egypt. Then

when the season to farm was over for the

year, they would work on the pharaoh's

massive building projects. Literally

building the

pyramids. Slightly above the slaves came

the artisans. They were the stonemasons,

the plasters, and the sculptors who

created the exuberant art the wealthy

desired and for Egypt is most known for

today. Then came the merchants who spent

their days navigating the Nile, trading

gold, papyrus, and linen to anyone who

could afford it. They were well

respected and able to make a healthy

profit by selling. Then came the

scribes. These masters of the world

would go to specialized scribe schools

just to master the language of ancient

Egyptian hieroglyphics. In practical

use, these scribes took account of the

stores of food, various tax documents,

and even the daily lives of the pharaoh.

After the scribes came the soldiers, the

soldiers were tasked with protecting the

Egyptian Empire. They dedicated their

lives to defend or make preemptive

strikes against their enemy. Generally,

they were wellfed. Then, near the top

came the bureaucrats. These highranking

government officials did essential tasks

at the top of society like the vazers

who ran the logistical tasks necessary

to run a civilization. The priests

oversaw taking care of the temples to

ensure the gods were well cared for. The

nobles oversaw specific regions of the

empire and kept order in said regions.

At the top, the purpose of everyone

below was the pharaoh, the king and the

mediator between the gods and the world

of men. The pharaohs will be known to be

supreme and all must succumb to it. When

the pharaoh dies, he will be buried in a

pyramid in which he will help eternally

rule over the Egyptian Empire. Egyptian

society was created to serve the

pharaoh. Taxes were taken from the

farmers for the pharaoh and artisans

made unique crafts for it. The merchants

ensured the pharaoh was well supplied

with the needed goods. The scribes would

follow the pharaoh and record his

thoughts. The soldiers made sure his

empire was protected. The bureaucrats

did the jobs the pharaoh couldn't do

while the pharaoh sat at the top and

communicated with the gods. Pharaoh

Ramsy's II 1279 to 1213 B.CE. CE

accomplished many extraordinary things

by living in this social system. He

orchestrated the construction of the

temple of Abu Symbol, the Ramisum and

the temple of Cararnac. He was also able

to grow the Egyptian Empire and

reconquer lands lost by other pharaohs

except for the land claimed by the

Hidife Empire.

[Music]

The Hittite king of the time, Matali II,

1295 to 1272 B.CEE, was notorious for

ordering his troops to attack his

Egyptian neighbors. Following the

example of Learnis, Matali wanted to

unify the world under Hittite rule.

However, Ramsy's had enough. Other

pharaohs in the past have tried to stop

the Hittites, but he knew if his empire

was to ever succeed, he needed to attack

back. His target is the city of Kadesh.

Ramsy's rode in on his chariot with four

divisions of 20,000 men ready to

dominate and kill Matali. However, the

Hittites already knew of the incoming

Egyptian invasion through espionage.

They fortified their city with 40,000 of

his own men. A war was about to

commence. Ramsy's decided to split up

his divisions to force Matali out, but

yet Matali never did. A gruesome

mistake. Splitting up his forces left

him exposed, unable to get an advantage,

allowing Matali and the people of Kadesh

a chance for victory. Historians believe

that all they did was come out from the

fortification of Kadesh and trap Ramsy's

II's forces in his army by the river.

But yet, for some unknown reason, they

never did, leaving the Battle of Kadesh

to end in a draw. After the battle

though, both sides decided it would be

best to stop attacking each other, that

they should live in peace and unity in

this world. Then after the death of

Matali, the new king Harusili III took

the throne of the Hittite Empire.

Through the means of messengers in the

year 1258 B.CEE, both Ramses and

Harusili signed the first peace treaty

to ever exist. Reading in part, Ramsy's

the great king, the king of the country

of Egypt, shall never attack the country

of Hadti to take possession of a part of

this country. and Haruseli the great

king of the country of Hadi shall never

attack the country of Egypt to take

possession of a part of that country.

Then a period of friendship occurred

between these two once waring nations.

The Hittites were skilled in metal work

and taught the Egyptians to make

superior weapons and tools. At the same

time, the Egyptians, master of

agriculture, shared their knowledge with

the Hittites. Trade for the benefit of

both civilizations. Both civilizations

prospered because of this. Peace can

lead to prosperity. The agreement was

kept in place until around 1,200 B.CE de

because that's when the Hittite Empire

fell because of the constant attacks

they faced from the sea people leaving

the Hittite Empire to be lost in the

state of

[Music]

history. While on a continent far away,

the first civilization in the Americas

was taking foot in modern-day Mexico.

Theme civilization 1200 B.CE to 400 B.CE

CE is often considered the mother

civilization of Native American

civilizations. However, sadly though,

not much is known about them, mainly due

to their writing in a hieroglyph

historians still can't decipher. One of

the few remains we have are these 17

colossal stone heads. In Mesoamerican

culture, there is this belief that the

head alone could contain an individual's

emotion, experience, and soul. We may

not know their leaders names like of

other civilizations like Ramsy's and

Hammurabi. When looking through the eyes

of a stone head, we can still feel their

presence. And in some ways, they remain

immortal, enshrined in history. For one

day, we may learn who they

[Music]

are. While in the east, the Zhao dynasty

1046 to 256 B.CE CE in China was taking

its stride. The Zhao dynasty gained

power because of the failures of the

less critical Shang dynasty. They

believed in the idea of a mandate from

heaven. This resulted in four principles

in the Chinese dynastical structure that

would be repeated repeatedly. One,

heaven grants the emperor the right to

rule. Two, since there is only one

heaven, there can only be one emperor at

any given time. Three, the emperor's

virtue determines his right to rule. And

four, no one dynasty has a permanent

right to rule. A ruler in dynasty could

lose the mandate from heaven. And the

heavens weren't always on the side of

the rulers. Over time, it will fade into

another dynasty. The heavens would send

signs of droughts, famines, floods, and

earthquakes across the land, signaling

they'd lost the blessing from above.

This is how the Shen dynasty fell and

the Zhao dynasty grew to prominence. The

Zhao dynasty brought another style of

government and the creation of

feudalism. The system was

straightforward leading to another

social pyramid. At the bottom lay the

peasants who were tied to the land and

whose job was to produce crops for the

empire. Then came the soldiers whose job

was to protect the lands from foreign

invaders. Then the lords who owned the

land and taxed the peasants a portion of

their crops who in turn the lord gave

some of their crops to the king. The

person in charge of the whole empire,

the king would then receive more crops

and become very wealthy. All profits go

to the king and all work goes to the

masses. Why would anyone just settle for

a life of farming day in and day out?

There are two reasons for this

phenomenon. The first reason was due to

necessity. It took many more people to

feed an empire and a family back then.

And the second reason being philosophy

towards the end of the Zhao dynasty, the

beginning of Eastern philosophy was

created. Confucious created a philosophy

system justly named Confucianism which

is focused on the importance of respect,

loyalty and responsibility in all

relationships in life. A central concept

of Confucianism is called Lee which can

be translated as rituals, customs or

manners. Lee refers to the formal and

informal social conventions that guide

societal behavior. It is seen as

maintaining order and harmony in social

relationships. While LaZee created

another philosophy called Towoism. The

word toao means the way or the path. And

toism teaches that individuals should

seek to align themselves with the

natural flow of the universe rather than

fighting against it. Live your life as

peacefully with yourself as possible and

don't worry about external things

outside your control. Just focus on your

farming. One of the most famous

contemporaries from Taoism is the idea

of yin and yang representing

complimentary and interdependent forces

in nature such as light and dark, hot

and cold or masculine and feminine.

Towoism teaches that by balancing these

opposing forces, individuals can achieve

harmony and fulfillment. Confucianism

and Taoism made life bearable for

ancient Chinese farmers.

[Music]

But as time progressed, the citystates

that occupied ancient Greece grew.

Around 800 B.CEE, the Greek city started

to realize that the land they occupied

was practically infertile. So to produce

an essential staple of grain, they had

to import it. Hence why the Greek states

had to colonize the world around them.

The citystate mletus at its height had

over 90 colonies throughout Europe

producing food for the Greeks. At its

height, the Greek had set up colonies

from modern-day Marseilles in France to

Rostavandon in

[Music]

Russia. One of these new emerging city

states was Rome. As legend has it,

Romulus and Ramis were twin brothers

abandoned by their parents and placed

into the river Tibet. As the basket

floated across the river, a female wolf

discovered the two orphans and nursed

them back to health. When Romulus and

Ramos became adults, they decided to

find a city where the wolf rescued them.

However, this created turmoil as both

brothers wanted the site to be named

after themselves. As Romulus and Ramos

fought relentlessly, eventually Romulus

came up with the final blow and killed

Ramos, creating Rome in 753 BC.

[Music]

While the Greek citystates might have

been colonizing, Cyrus the Great was

about to take over an empire. At the

time, the Persians were subjugated to

the rule of the Mes Empire. According to

legend, after his grandson Cyrus was

born, King Aages of Mes had a vivid

dream that his little grandson would one

day stage a revolt against him. King

Astages knew what to do and ordered his

chief adviser to kill the baby. But the

chief adviser gave the baby off to a

shepherd to be raised instead. However,

troubles weren't over for Cyrus. When he

was 10, King Aages found Cyrus. King

Aages wanted to kill him because the

dream was very clear. This man will

revolt against you. Yet against his

better senses, Cyrus was allowed to

live. King Astage's biggest mistake.

When Cyrus was a man, he gathered his

army and revolted against his maternal

grandfather, the two. But as prophecy

had it, Aiges surrendered in 550 B.CE.

However, Cyrus wasn't done conquering.

He conquered Babylon and became the

supreme ruler of Mesopotamia and even

the Indis Valley civilization. The world

was in Cyrus's hand. Cyrus then took

over the Greek colony of Ionia in Asia

Minor, leading a great Persian Empire.

And then he died, leaving it all in the

air for the next great Persian king,

Darius the

[Music]

Great. While back in Greece, various

citystates started to gain power, but

two were at the forefront, Sparta and

Athens. Sparta was a military

powerhouse. The famous Spartans believed

everything should focus on physical

strength and war. When a new young

Spartan was born, it would be

slaughtered if it didn't look healthy.

Boys were taken from their families at a

young age and were trained to become

soldiers. The brutal training included

physical conditioning, weapons training,

and harsh living conditions. The entire

life of a Spartan was to win a war.

Their society reflected with three main

groups. The ruling class consisted of

aristocrats who held political power.

The free non-citizens who were not

allowed to participate in government but

were still expected to serve in the

military and the hellets, a group of

enslaved people that provided labor for

the Spartan state. Life in Sparta was

harsh, brutal, and militaristic.

While their neighbors up north were

experimenting with this idea of

democracy, Athenian democracy was a

highly complicated mess. There were two

branches, the Council of 500 and the

Assembly. The Council of 500 was

selected randomly by a process known as

sort. Athens itself was made up of 10

different tribes. Each tribe was

responsible for providing 50 citizens to

serve for one year in the Council of 500

via random selection. Each eligible

citizen would be given a personalized

token. Those tokens were inserted into a

particular machine called a clarition.

This long lost technology included tubes

and balls which somehow selected 50

residents of each tribe to join the

illustrious Council of 500. While in the

assembly, there was a system in place

that said that every single citizen had

a vote. Of course, to be a citizen, you

had to be a male and not a slave. and

either born in Athens or to Athenian

parents. The Council of 500 would create

the agenda for the main assembly to vote

on because over 30,000 people could have

a vote at any given time. It was total

chaos. So to quell this, the council

would nominate nine presidents the

morning of the meeting, and it was their

job to ensure all the rules and

procedures were being followed. Since

they were appointed right before the

assembly met, they were almost

impossible to bribe. Somehow the

assembly would loudly vote on whether a

bill would pass. They would vote on

matters like appointing generals,

various laws, and other government

bureaucracy. However, not everyone liked

this Athenian democracy. The famous

Greek philosopher Plato thought the idea

was barbaric. In book six of the seminal

book, The Republic, Plato writes, "The

true navigator must study the seasons of

the year, the sky, the stars, the winds,

and all the other subjects appropriate

to his profession if he is really fit to

control the ship. Think that it's quite

impossible to acquire the professional

skill needed for such control, and that

there's no such thing as the art of

navigation. How much could a randomly

selected member of the Council of 500

really know? How much could he fully

contribute to society? Should we allow a

random member of society to have any

power? Instead, Plato would advocate for

the idea of a philosopher king, a man

who studies wisdom, logic, and

reasoning, a man who dedicates his life

to understanding how to be just, a man

who will become the navigator of wisdom.

Plato would rather say, "The society we

have described can never grow into a

reality or see the light of day, and

there will be no end to the troubles of

the states." Or, indeed, my dear Glalin,

of humanity itself, till philosophers

become rulers in this world, or till

those we now call kings and rulers

really and truly become philosophers,

and political power and philosophy thus

come into the same hands. There's just

one issue with Plato's quote. Every

leader thinks they're a philosopher

king. Everyone thinks their thoughts are

the best. Everyone thinks their ideas

are the wisest. From Yu the Great in

China to Labarnis of the Hittite Empire

to Sedara Gaimma of the Kingdom of

Magada in

India. While not so far away in the

Indian kingdom of Magada, a spoiled

prince named Sedarta Gaimma 500 B.CEE

lived in luxury inside a palace. Inside

this palace, Sedarta could have anything

he wanted. All the jewels, all the

wealth, all the finest goods thrust upon

him. His world inside of the palace was

a utopia on earth. There was no want,

need, or desire, and it was perfect

until he went outside his palace

compound, the only place he ever knew.

As he took his first steps outside of

his palace, what he saw struck a chord.

He saw an old man dying right on the

street in front. He realized that the

human experience wasn't something that

was perfect and sublime. Instead, it was

death. As Gilgamesh realized many years

ago, this was an inevitable part of the

human experience. Seda left his life of

luxury behind and began a quest for

knowledge and enlightenment. He studied

with spiritual teachers and meditated

for many years, searching for answers to

life's big questions. Finally, after 6

years of seeking, he sat down under a

fig tree and meditated until he achieved

enlightenment. Enlightenment is a state

of inner peace in which one has

transcended the limitations of the ego

and is in touch with a universal

consciousness or divine essence. It

isn't a fixed and permanent thing but

rather an ongoing process of growth and

development. But under that fig tree,

Sedarta became known as the Buddha or

the awakened one. He would spend the

rest of his life traveling the

countryside, becoming close to the

enlightenment. Darius was determined to

follow in his father's footsteps and

take over the world. After finalizing

their rule over the citystate of Ionia,

the Persians were on a quest to take

over Greece. Darius and his 20,000 men

came to the city of Marathon in the year

490 B.CE. a city 26.2 mi away from

Athens. The Athenians were vastly

outnumbered with only 10,000 men. As the

Persians were trying to regroup, the

powerful Greek hoplights crushed the

weaker Persian foot soldiers by routing

the wings before turning towards the

center of the Persian line. The remnants

of the Persian army fled to their ships

and left the battle. Early historians

believe the battlefield littered 6,400

Persian bodies while the Athenians lost

only 192. So the Persians retreated and

an Athenian messenger named Phipides ran

the 26.2 mi from Marathon to

Athens, exclaiming with joy how the

Athenians just beat the mighty Persian

Empire. All of Athens went crazy with

this fantastic news, hence leading the

Phipides historic trek to be sketched

into history as the world's first

marathon. However, the Persians weren't

done. Even with Darius I dying of

mysterious circumstances, his son,

Exeres I took over the crown and wanted

to complete his grandfather's legacy. In

480 B.CE. Xerxes I wanted revenge, so he

brought his enormous invasion force of

over

100,000 soldiers and was dead set on

conquering Greece. Then at a narrow pass

at Thermopoly, the Spartan king Leonitis

had his force of 7,000 Spartans maintain

the defense. Leonitis knew of his

disadvantage and developed a bold and

daring plan to defeat the Persians.

Rather than waiting for the Persians to

attack, Leonitis ordered his soldiers to

make a surprise attack on the Persian

camp, catching the Persians offguard and

disrupting their formation. Despite

their success, the Greek army was

ultimately overwhelmed by the Persians

who attacked from all sides and

eventually broke through the Greek

defenses. Leonitis and his soldiers

fought with courage and determination.

Still, they were ultimately defeated.

Then came the battle of Salamis where

the Greeks could change the tilt of the

war in a naval battle between the 500

Persian tri and 300 Greek tri. It didn't

look good for the Greeks. Still, the

great Athenian general, the Mysticles,

employed his plan to move the Persian

fleet into the narrow straits of Salamis

and hit the enemy fleet so hard that it

had nowhere to retreat. After a massive

sea battle, the Mysticles won Greece the

victory and changed the face of the war.

The Persians still had their goal.

Conquer the Greek citystates. Xer had

returned to Persia, leaving Persian

General Mardonius in charge of the

Persian force for most of the

significant battle yet. After diplomatic

talks ceased, Persia knew they had to

attack. As the Persians sent their

troops to Platea, the Greeks knew they

had to work together. With 30 various

Greek citystates working together, they

were able to field a massive

110,000 hoplight army with the primary

purpose of defeating Persia. Though that

was nothing compared to the estimated

150,000man army of Persia. The battle

was fierce and intense with both sides

fighting with ferocity and

determination. The Greek hoplights

continued to be effective against the

Persian cavalry and archers. The Greeks

also strategically used the terrain,

fighting on a slope that helped offset

the Persian numerical advantage. In the

end, the Greeks defeated the Persian

forces and secured a decisive victory.

The Persians suffered heavy losses and

Mardonius was killed in the fighting.

The battle of Platea marked the end of

the Greco Persian wars and the Persian

threat to Greece.

After the Persian War, life in ancient

Greece was spectacular. A golden age of

culture was upon us. With no longer

having to face the threat of war, Athens

was able to create architectural wonders

such as the Parthonon. The Parthonon

sits upon the Athenian Acropolis, a

prominent hill overlooking the city of

Athens to show its wealth and culture.

No matter where you'll go in Athens, you

can still see the great Parthonon even

today. Then came the theater. Around

this time, the state would sponsor the

most significant poets to create stories

in the Athenian festival called the city

Dionia. A festival designed to worship

the Greek god of theater and fertility,

Dionis, creating playwrights such as

Sophocles, Escilis, and Aristophanes.

[Music]

States were hungry for power. Athens was

recruiting citystates into their Dillian

alliance while Sparta was recruiting

citystates into their Pelpeneisian

alliance. Both Sparta and Athens felt

like they should control the city of

Corkia. Hence why in 434 B.CE war was

upon the Greek peninsula resulting in

naval battles such as the battle of

Ciblo and the battle of Pyos. By 421

B.CEE a short peace was negotiated.

However, this peace would not last and

Athens had their eyes on Sicily.

Initially, the expedition was going

well. The Athenians established

alliances with several Sicilian cities

and won several minor skirmishes against

the Sicilian forces. But soon Alabiades,

one of the greatest naval generals in

history, was recalled to Athens to face

charges of sacriage. The Athenian fleet

was left without his

leadership. In his absence, the

expedition began to unravel. The

Athenians could not take the city of

Syracuse, which had fortified its

defenses and was well prepared for a

siege. The Sicilians were aided by

reinforcements from Sparta, which saw an

opportunity to strike a crippling blow

against its arch rival, Athens. The

Athenians suffered from a lack of

supplies and were plagued by disease. At

the same time, the Syracus launched a

series of surprise attacks and ambushes.

Finally, after months of grueling

fighting, the Athenian fleet was

destroyed in a decisive battle.

Thousands of Athenians were killed and

many more were captured and enslaved. A

decade after that, Athens fell to the

Spartans. The age of legendary Greece

was now over. Both Athens and Sparta

were significantly weaker, never to

regain the same power they once had,

leaving the world ready for a

philosopher king to conquer it all.

Then in the east, the mandate of heaven

was up. The Zhao dynasty, after a long

800year rule, it was deemed by the

heavens that their empire was up, which

led to a period known as the waring

states 474 to 221 B.CE. This resulted in

Hanfi who created a new philosophy

called legalism. Followers of legalism

believed that people were inherently

selfish and would only act in their own

self-interest and that the only way to

keep them in line was through a system

of rewards and punishments that was

clear and consistently enforced. This

resulted in Fezy claiming that the best

way to achieve social order was by

establishing a powerful ruler

responsible for enforcing the law and

punishing wrongdoers. He also believed

the ruler should have complete control

over the military, the economy, and

society. While in the heart of the Waka

region of Mexico, the Zapotch

civilization started to flourish. The

capital city of Monte Alban was being

built on a mountaintop overlooking the

entire Waka Valley. Perched on the

mountaintop overlooking the valley of

Waka, the city was home to a ruling

elite who oversaw a hierarchal social

structure that included middleclass

artisans and lowerass farmers. The

people of the Zapotch civilization were

known for their innovative agricultural

practices, including the cultivation of

maze and other crops, which sustained

their communities in times of drought

and other environmental pressures. They

also developed an early writing system

which used a combination of symbols and

glyphs to represent words and ideas.

They developed an advanced calendar

system based on 260day and

3605day solar cycles.

In Greece during the year 356 B.CEE in

the city of Pella in the kingdom of

Macedon, the greatest commander in

history was born. Alexander the Great

grew up knowing he would be a leader and

was the son of King Philip II and Queen

Olympia. But the teacher was much more

impressive. Since he was a kid,

Alexander was tutored by Aristotle.

Aristotle is the man who is known as the

father of logic. He created the fields

of biology and taxonomy by introducing a

way to think called the scientific

method. A method that is still taught in

schools to this day. He also wrote

extensively about philosophy, ethics,

and art, changing the face of the world

as we know it today. This is the man who

was in charge of teaching Alexander the

Great. Alexander was 20 when his father

was assassinated. But his excellent

education allowed him to take over the

rest of the world. After his father died

in 336 B.CE, Alexander was hellbent on

keeping his family's power. So when the

Greek city of Thieves decided to revolt,

Alexander and his army marched 240 m in

14 days. When thieves refused to

surrender, he raised the entire city to

the ground and 6,000 were killed and the

rest were sold into slavery. The rest of

the Greek citystates recoiled in fear,

allowing Alexander to do as he pleased,

leaving for his new target to be Persia

and the new Persian king, Darius III. In

333 BC, Alexander faced the Persian army

at the Battle of Isus. This significant

engagement saw the Persian king Darius

III defeated and forced to flee.

Alexander then captured several key

cities, including the vital port of Ty,

which had resisted his initial siege. In

331 BC, Alexander faced Darius III again

at the Battle of Gagamela near the

Tigress River in modern-day Iraq.

Despite being outnumbered, Alexander won

a decisive victory using superior

tactics and mobility. The Persian army

was shattered and Darius III fled once

again. Alexander then proceeded to

capture the Persian capital of Babylon

and took control of much of Mesopotamia.

He continued his campaign eastward,

winning battles in what is now

modern-day Iran and Afghanistan. In 330

BC, he captured the Persian capital of

Procepils, a city of great wealth and

cultural significance. But Alexander

wasn't done. He wanted to expand

eastward, eventually crossing the Hindu

Kush mountains into India. However, his

troops grew tired of the endless

fighting and refused to go any further,

and Alexander was forced to turn back.

However, after Alexander failed in the

Indian subcontinent, a powerhouse

emerged in India called the Morian

Empire. At its height, it spanned over

much of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and

Afghanistan. However, this conquering

came at much of a cost for its leader,

Ashoka the Great. In 261 BC, after the

death of his parents, Ashoka decided

that his empire needed to expand. in his

sights, the kingdom of Kolinga. The war

was bloody. The war was fierce. Over a

100,000 people died. Ashoka couldn't

sleep with himself. He didn't know how

to deal with his actions that resulted

in so much death. So, he turned to the

teaching of the Buddha. Under Ashoka's

rule, the Morian Empire became known for

supporting Buddhist teachings and

promoting nonviolence. Ashoka issued a

series of edicts inscribed on rocks and

pillars throughout the empire that

promoted principles such as kindness,

respect for all religions, and the

abolition of slavery. Certain traits

were not shared in the West by

Alexander. In the West, it was deemed

honorable to die in combat, and a hero's

death would be remembered forever. A

farmer will die in anonymity. Alexander

died a few years later in Babylon at the

age of 32. Throughout his expedition,

Alexander was spreading Greek ideas

founded by his once wise teacher,

bringing the rise of Greek ideals across

the land, starting the seeds of the

western cultures we see today. Once

Alexander died, his empire just could

not sustain itself. His generals feuded

as to who should be the leader of this

great empire. Everyone wanted power yet

in fighting left to waste in oblivion.

Eventually in 323 BC after senseless

wars the Greek generals divided the

world into three major empires. The

Tomies in Egypt, the Seucids in the east

and the Antigonids in Greece.

Tomlamese, one of Alexander's generals,

led Egypt into a period of prosperity.

Inspiration by his former leader, Tomies

built the Library of Alexandria, a hub

for an intellectual scholarship.

Intellectuals from all over will come to

the library to exchange ideas and

thoughts throughout the world, leaving

us to have great philosophers like Plato

and Aristotle to be the backbone of our

culture. While the general Seucid was

given the keys to the city of Babylon.

Babylon at this time was a cultural hub

melting Greek, Persian, Indian and

Central Asian cultures. Seucid though

preferred Greek ideas and Greek

language. The Seucid Empire was at its

height during the reign of King

Antiochus III 223 BC to 187 BC. Under

King Antiochus III, the Seucids

encompassed a vast territory from

modern-day Turkey to modern-day

Pakistan, one of the largest empires on

record until the rise of the

Romans. While the Antigonids did not

have nearly as much success by the time

Antiggonids I took power, the Greeks

were just a shell of what they once

were. The age of the Greeks was behind

us. The Dolomies, the Seucids, and the

Antigonids went astray from the Roman

Empire. However, for Rome to rise, it

had to face a powerful foe, Carthage.

Both Rome and Carthage had a desire for

the same citystate, Msina, on the island

of Sicily. This would give either

civilization a foothold to grab power in

the Mediterranean. The first Punic war

was upon us and after 20 years of

fighting in the year 241 B.CEE and the

defeat of Carthage, the Treaty of

Lutatius was signed. The peace though

was short-lived. In 218 B.CE. the second

Punic Wars began when the Carthagian

general Hannibal invaded Italy with his

army, including elephants to conquer

Rome. Hannibal won several early battles

including the battle of Ka in 216 B.CE.

Still he was ultimately defeated by the

Roman general Cypio Aricanis at the

battle of Zama in 202 B.CEE. The war

resulted in the complete defeat of

Carthage which was forced to seed its

territories to Rome and the end of the

Carthaginian Empire. There was no doubt

in the world anymore that it was time

for the Romans to take charge in the

west. While in the east, after the end

of the waring states period, Chin Xi

Huang and the Chin dynasty were an

absolute power. 221 B.CE to 206 B.CE.

Chin was determined to turn diverse

China into a unified Chinese empire. He

divided the lands into 36 command areas

supervised by a governor, military

commander, and imperial inspector. It

was expected that you followed the will

of Chin or else you would face harsh

penalties. The basic ideas of legalism

in action, strong government, harsh

laws, and inheriting knowing that humans

were necessarily selfish. However, their

mandate from heaven ran quite quickly.

After Chinshi Huangs death, China was in

turmoil with another dynasty on

foot. Lu Bang, leader from 206 to 195

B.CE. After leading a revolt against the

Chin, was declared emperor of the new

Han dynasty. Instead of following the

strict legalistic mindset of the Chin,

Lu decided to set his empire as a

Confucianist paradise. The ideals of

moderation, virtue, and pity as set

through Confucianism were marched

throughout the empire, weaving the

cocoon of a powerful dynasty. During the

Han dynasty, the production of silk was

ever increasing, and the idea of profits

was in the minds of all. So, in 138

B.CE, Emperor Han Wu sent an imperial

convoy to make contact with cultures of

Central Asia and the Mediterranean. Then

after the routes were established,

Chinese merchants and traders would

bring their silk across the Silk Road to

the Middle East and eventually Europe

where it would be sold at high profits.

Though in the beginning, the route was

relatively short. Because in 97 BC,

Ambassador Coning was sent to Rome with

gifts of silk for their empire. However,

Khan only got as far as Mesopotamia,

because he was told by the Parththeians,

the dominant empire in Iran at the time,

that the journey would take years.

Little did Khan know that he was

misinformed, that the journey would have

been relatively shorter, but the

Parththeians wanted to keep their spot

as the middlemen. They did not want

China and Rome to have contact with one

another, creating a system of three

empires smooshed right up against each

other. Rome in the west, Parththeians in

the center and China in the

east. Then in 86 B.CEE, Greece, already

being weakened by the conquest of

Alexander the Great, was now the target

of the Roman Empire. General Lucius

Cornelius Sola led an army of legions to

the forefront of Athens. He besieged

Athens for several months, brutally

torturing the citizens within.

Eventually, when Athens fell, he ordered

his soldiers to loot and pillage the

city, destroying many important cultural

treasures. This takeover cemented Rome

as a superpower. Athens no longer had

the power, but rather it was in

Rome. While in 63 B.CE, CE, General

Pompei was tasked with capturing

Jerusalem and the region of Galilee. The

Romans quickly captured the cities,

forcing Galilee to be placed under Roman

rule, including a small village called

Nazareth. The Romans desire to expand

didn't end in Galilee. Though in 58

B.CE, De Julius Caesar was appointed

governor of the Roman provide of

Cicipolene Gaul, northern Italy with the

express assignment of conquering the

rest of the Gauls. At the time, the

Gauls were a group of Celtic peoples who

lived in that area that is now France,

Belgium, and parts of Switzerland,

Germany, and Italy. However, it was

Caesar's job to take over these Celtic

tribes. While the Gauls who were

insistent on their independence, all had

to work together under the leadership of

Versen Jederics in a lastditch attempt

to stop the Romans. As Caesar brought

his troops to Alleia in 52 BC, war was

upon us. Alicia was surrounded by a

double wall and a ditch with additional

fortifications on the town's hills.

Versen Jeder had gathered a large force

of GIC warriors inside the town. In

contrast, Caesar had assembled a sizable

Roman army outside the walls. Caesar

realized that a direct assault on the

town would be complex. So, he surrounded

the GIC forces and starve them into

submission. He ordered the construction

of a series of fortifications around

Alicia, including a circumalation wall

that encircled the town and a second

wall and ditch that faced outward to

defend against any attempts to break

out. Over several weeks, Caesar's forces

engaged in a grueling siege of Allesia.

With both sides suffering heavy losses,

the GIC warriors inside the town made

several attempts to break out, but they

were repelled by the Roman forces. The

tide of the battle turned in favor of

the Romans when a second GIC army led by

Versened's ally Commus attempted to

relieve the siege. Caesar sent a

detachment of his forces to intercept

the GIC reinforcements. After a fierce

battle, the Roman soldiers emerged

victorious. With his forces surrounded

and facing starvation, Versenetics was

forced to surrender. He emerged from

Allegia and offered himself as a

prisoner to Caesar, effectively ending

the GIC resistance to Roman rule.

Throughout the next 2 years, Caesar

crossed the GIC Empire, conquering and

implementing it into Rome. The Gauls

were implemented into Rome, even gaining

citizenship within the

empire. However, the Senate was not

happy with Caesar. Even though he had

great success against the Gauls, the

Roman Senate wanted him to stop. They

did not like the popularity Caesar was

gaining, nor the power he was

controlling. So the Roman Senate called

upon Caesar to resign his command and

disband his army or risk being declared

an enemy of the state. This led Caesar

to an essential choice to make. Will he

either follow the will of the Roman

Senate or ignore them and start a bloody

civil war? Roman law at the time

prohibited any general from crossing the

Rubicon River and entering mainland

Italy with a standing army without the

expressed permission of the Roman

Senate. To do so would be treason, and

this tiny stream would reveal Caesar's

intentions and mark the point of no

return. Civil war was imminent as Caesar

and his army marched over the Rubicon.

Battles in Corfinium and Farales showed

the Senate that Caesar was a worthy foe.

So the Roman Senate appointed his

son-in-law Nais Pompi to lead the Roman

forces against his father-in-law. Both

parties knew the importance of Spain due

to it providing a link between Italy and

the rest of Europe. The two armies

clashed near the town of Lea in

northeastern Spain. Caesar's army was

significantly outnumbered, but he could

use his superior military tactics and

training to gain the upper hand in the

battle. After several days of intense

fighting, Caesar emerged victorious,

forcing Pompy's forces to retreat,

declaring Caesar as the new leader of

Rome. When Caesar made it back to Rome,

the crowds were chanting, "Hail Caesar!

Hail Caesar!" The people then decided

that he would be the dictator of Rome

for life. Caesar immediately set to work

implementing a series of reforms and

policies aimed at improving ordinary

Romans lives and strengthening the

central government's power. He ordered

the construction of new infrastructure

such as roads, bridges, and aqueducts

which helped to connect different parts

of the city and improve trade and

commerce. Caesar also enacted a series

of political and social reforms,

including granting citizenship to many

people living in the Roman Empire and

creating new laws and customs that were

based on Roman practices. He encouraged

the spread of the Latin language and

culture throughout the city and

established the Julian calendar, which

is the basis of the calendar we use

today. However, Caesar's reign was

short-lived because 2 years later in 44

BC, he was stabbed to death by two loyal

senators, Casius and Brutus. The

assassination of Caesar led the Roman

world into disarray. The world was

filled with factions vying for

government control without a strong

leader.

Octaven Caesar's son, who was 18 then,

came to Rome to claim his inheritance

and assert his place in the political

landscape. He quickly aligned himself

with Caesar's loyal lieutenant, Mark

Anthony. Together, they defeated

Caesar's assassins at the Battle of

Philippi in 42 B.CE. However, tensions

soon arose between Octavian and Anthony

as both men vied for control of the

Roman Empire. In 31 B.CE, de their

forces clashed in the naval battle of

Actium which resulted in Octaven

emerging as the clear victor. Anthony

fled to Egypt with his lover Cleopatra

and the two committed suicide the

following year. With Antony's defeat,

Octavian emerged as the undisputed ruler

of Rome. In 27 B.CEE, he was appointed

Augustus and became the first Roman

emperor.

During Augustus's reign, a man who would

change the world was born in the Roman

occupied city of Bethlehem, Jesus

Christ. The Gospel of Luke says, "In

those days, a decree went out from

Caesar Augustus that all the world

should be registered. This was the first

registration when Corinius was governor

of Syria, and all went to be registered,

each to his own town." Luke 2 1-3. This

census was an essential factor in Roman

society because it established the

population counts in these various

communities making it possible to tax

these various citizens. So the highly

pregnant Mary and her betrothed husband

Joseph had to travel 90 miles on foot

from Nazareth to Bethlehem to complete

this legally required Roman census. When

they arrived in Bethlehem, many other

descendants of the King of David or

members of the Jewish faith were also

going to Bethlehem for the census. They

found out that there was no room for

them in the inn. So, they were forced to

take shelter in a stable where Mary gave

birth to Jesus. Jesus was later named

King of the Jews. After Jesus's birthday

and the completion of the census, Mary

and Joseph returned to Nazareth with

their extraordinary son. As the years of

Jesus went on, stories about him grew.

More and more followers began to worship

Jesus as their Messiah. They claimed

that he can catch an endless amount of

fish. They claimed that he can cure the

blind. And they claimed that he was the

son of God. So these followers,

specifically his disciples, started to

write down his entire life journey. Four

of his closest disciples, Matthew, Mark,

Luke, and John, wrote down the main

chunks of the book in these parts called

Gospels. Each of these gospels covered

almost all of the same events, the

narrative life of Jesus Christ. This

narrative testimony of a child born in a

stable changed the world

forever. Even though many loved Jesus,

some viewed him as a threat. Emperor

Tiberius succeeded Augustus and reigned

from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was

notorious for his delators, a network of

informants rewarded for spying and

reporting on suspected traitors and

criminals. Criminals reported on by the

Delators had to face a treason trial,

often resulting in executions or forced

suicides. His prefect of Judea at the

time, Pontius Pilate, was no stranger to

the harsh punishment of traitors. As

Jesus was influencing more and more

people, he became more of a political

threat. So, following the guidelines of

Emperor Tiberius, Pilate was given no

practical political choice other than to

execute Jesus on the cross. Roman law

was evident. Then, one must follow the

emperor's will or else they will perish.

As Jesus was crucified on the cross, a

new religion was born.

Christianity. In the beginning,

Christianity was just a small sect of

Judaism. Nevertheless, its growth would

[Music]

unparalleled. Paul of Taurus would take

the word of his chosen Lord across the

known world. From Greece to Turkey to

Syria, the word of Jesus Christ spread.

His missionary tales are now documented

in the New Testament as the book of

Acts. The more Paul went to different

places, the more followers he gained. On

the same token, it created more enemies.

The divide between monotheism and

polytheism was on the rise. It was

beginning to get a lot tougher for

Romans to accept a religious population

that didn't believe in gods like Mars

and Jupiter. So when the great fire of

Rome occurred in July of 64 AD, Emperor

Nero quickly blamed it on the

Christians. The great fire was an event

that destroyed 23 of the city of Rome.

So in order to pay for these massive

repairs, Nero instituted heavy tributes

across the empire. to meet at least a

proportion of the costs. Nurero also

started to print more Roman currency,

creating an inflationary effect for the

first time in the empire's history.

However, the individuals who lived under

Roman rule, which wasn't in Rome proper,

were upset by this new policy. So, in

the holy city of Jerusalem in 66 AD, a

revolt was on. At first, the first

Jewish revolt succeeded and the Jewish

forces quickly expelled the unprepared

Roman army. Then the rebels gained some

traction in the neighboring villages in

Galilee. In response, the Roman Emperor

Nero sent the general Vespasian to meet

the Jewish forces. An endeavor that

pushed most rebels into Jerusalem proper

by the time Vespasian was proclaimed

emperor in 69 CE. Then around Passover

in 70 AD, Vespasian and his forces

sieged the city, depleting it of food

and water within the walls of Jerusalem.

The Jews started to quarrel within,

leaving them more vulnerable to attack.

By August, the Romans breached the

defenses, killed much of the population,

and destroyed many of their holy sites.

With the Jews decimated, the strength of

polytheism lived long.

Then in 98 to 117 AD under Emperor

Trean, the Roman Empire was able to

expand its greatest territorial extent,

spanning all the way from modern-day

Britain to the Persian Gulf. Roman rule

was

everywhere. Well, except for in the

Americas, because the Romans didn't even

know they existed. In the Americas, we

can see the growth of various

civilizations across the Andes located

in modern-day Peru and Chile. The Mochi

civilization was able to build

monumental structures like the Wakadel

Soul and Wakadela Luna. Impressive

pyramids that were the center of their

religions. They also created advanced

fertilization techniques that used bird

droppings as fertilizer. Their highly

centralized government made everyone

know their place in

society. While a little bit more south,

the Nazca civilization is one enthralled

in mystery. The people of Nazca created

a series of large scale geoglyph

consisting of hundreds of individual

figures, including geometric shapes,

animals, and human-like figures by

removing the dark reddish brown iron

oxidecoated pebbles covering the surface

of the Nazca desert. These lines are now

called Nazca lines, the purpose of which

is still unknown to this day and subject

to conspiracy theory today.

Around 100 AD, the Zapotch started

establishing Monte Albban, their

capital. It was one of the first

examples of urban planning in the

Americas. The city was laid out in a

grid pattern with main roads and smaller

side streets leading to plazas and

public buildings. The city was also

divided into different districts, each

with specialized functions such as

residential, administrative, and

religious, leaving it to be in use for a

thousand years after

[Music]

that. While back in Rome, after the end

of Trajan's reign in 117 AD, a new

emperor with a purpose was in hand.

Hadrien was a man tasked with a near

impossible. Keeping the massive Roman

Empire under one rule. He first had to

deal with a crisis with the newly

colonized Roman Britain. Like their

predecessors in Judea, the Roman Brits

did not like being Roman. So they

started to cause unrest. And in the eyes

of Hadrien, a real threat of revolution

was on his mind. So Hadrien had ordered

a massive wall aptly named Hadrien's

wall which spanned almost coast to

coast. Keeping it sunk in the conquered

people's minds that the Romans were here

staving off revolution in one region.

However, in Galilee things weren't as

peaceful. Simon Bar Kokba led a

rebellion of the Jewish people to free

themselves from Roman rule. As you see,

Rome was developing a new city called

Alia Capolina over the ruins of

Jerusalem from the last revolt with

temples dedicated to polytheistic gods

like Jupiter. By 132, Bar Kokba took the

bottle of Nasi, head of state. Many Jews

regarded him as the Messiah who would

save the Jewish people and restore their

independence. Goka's troops would storm

Ilia Capalina, almost knocking out

entirely the Roman garrison controlling

the city. Hadrien though would not have

it. So he sent a force of 120,000 men to

the lands of Judea to conquer and force

the Jewish people into submission. As

Casius Dio says in the history of Rome,

50 of their most important outposts and

985 of their most famous villages were

raised.

580,000 men were slain in the various

raids and battles, and the number of

those that perished by famine, disease,

and fire was past finding out. Thus,

nearly the whole of Judea was made

desolate. History of Rome

69.14 1:2 Rome made it clear that it was

not to be taken

lightly. While in China, the message was

quite different. The ideas of Buddhism

were spreading along with the Chinese

philosophies of Confucianism and Tauism

and built a dynasty. These three

philosophies work together to make the

Han dynasty stronger and more united in

many

ways. While in America, the Mayan

architects went across northern Pin and

designed a series of short broad temples

with wide staircases flanked by enormous

stucco masks. These stucco masks were

made of plaster and some burned and

powdered limestone. The Mayans built

these stone armatures into elaborate

deity faces to capture the soul of the

gods and bring it to the people. A

temple like the E7 sub, yes, historians

name Mayan temples like military

submarines, is a pyramid with 16 stucco

masks. Each allows us to go deeper into

the souls of these deities of the

past. In the Middle East, a new empire

was emerging with roots in the past. A

man named Ardashir claimed to have royal

blood that traced all the way back to

Cyrus the Great. Ardashir claimed that

he should be the true ruler of the

Persian Empire, not those frauds of the

Parththeians. Artichir was able to unite

the various tribes of Persia. In 224 AD,

Artichir I led his forces against the

Parthian king Artabenus V in a

significant battle at Hermas. The

Cisanian forces known for their cavalry

defeated the Parththeians and captured

Artabinus V. With this victory, Ardashir

I declared himself king and established

the Cisanian Empire. Ardashir I quickly

established a centralized government and

built a new capital at Tijapon on the

Tigris River. He reestablished the

Zoroastrian religion which had been

suppressed by the Parththeians as the

empire's official religion. He also

built a powerful military machine with

skilled cavalry and archers. He began to

expand his territory by conquering

neighboring

regions. As the Parththeians were on

their way out, so were the Han. The Han

dynasty's downfall was marked by

political instability, economic

problems, external threats, internal

rebellions, and power struggles. The

weakening of central authority allowed

regional warlords to seize power, and

the government's attempts to address

economic issues were unsuccessful.

External threats and rebellions weakened

the dynasty even further. A warlord

named Sao Pi declared himself emperor

and established the Weii dynasty,

officially ending the Han

dynasty. While back in Rome, Emperor

Dialesian 284 to 305 faced a problem.

Rome was becoming too large and

impossible to manage. So, Dialesian

created the tetrarchy and divided the

region into four where each region was

governed by a separate emperor. Within

the tetra, there were two types of

emperors, Augustus and Caesars.

Dialesian chose Maxameon to be his equal

to Augustus. In contrast, Galleras and

Constantius were appointed to be

Caesars. However, this system created

uncontrolled chaos and anarchy. Each

emperor had desires for power and

ambition and it all came to a head in

305 when power shifted. Both Dialesian

and Maximian retired and in 306

Constantius died. Three out of the four

original leaders were left out of the

system leading to a power vacuum to

come. Emperor Constantine the Great was

appointed by his father's army

unilaterally as an Augustus and a Caesar

at the same time to replace his father.

At the same time, Maximan's son,

Maxentius, felt as though he should have

been appointed Caesar instead of

Valyriius Seis. So, in 307, Maxentius

sent his army and forced Valyriius Seis

to surrender. Come 308, Galleras

appointed Lascinius to replace him. So

on the west side of Rome, two emperors

wanted to rule. Constantine ruled over

Gaul in Britain and Maxentius ruled

Italy and North Africa. Maxentius had a

difficult time consolidating his power

and he faced increasing resistance from

the people of Rome. To try and secure

his hold on power, Maxentius ordered the

construction of a new bridge across the

Tyber River near Rome known as the

Milvian Bridge. Constantine saw

Maxentius as a threat to his power. So

he decided to march on Rome to confront

him. As the two armies approached each

other near the Milvian Bridge,

Constantine had a vision of a cross in

the sky with the words in this sign

conquer. Some accounts suggest that this

vision may have been a dream or a

hallucination, while others suggest that

it may have been a sign from God.

Regardless of the nature of the vision,

Constantine took it as a sign that he

would be victorious in battle if he

fought under the sign of the Christian

cross. He had his soldiers paint this

symbol on their shields and banners, and

he went into battle with renewed vigor

and confidence. The battle was fierce

and brutal, with both sides suffering

heavy losses. Maxentius had a larger

army, but his troops were spread out and

disorganized. Constantine was able to

take advantage of this, and he was able

to push Maxentius's forces back towards

the Tyber River. In the chaos of the

retreat, Maxentius was forced off the

Milvian Bridge and into the water where

he drowned. Shortly after his victory,

Constantine met Lasinius at Midolanum,

modern Milan, to confirm several

political and dynastic arrangements to

produce the edict of Milan. This edict

gave power for Eastern Rome to the

Cinius and Constantine sole power of the

West. More importantly though, this

document extended religious tolerance

for Christians and restored any

properties confiscated from them during

the persecution. However, the peaceful

coexistence of both rulers was

short-lived. Though the edict allowed

for the safety of Christians, The Cineas

was still very much a paganist. Their

differences started to grow. All came

near the city of Crosopoulos in 324 AD

where both armies went and fought.

Constantine's military might was on

display. He was able to force the

Eastern Roman army towards the sea,

leaving many to be killed or captured.

Constantine was declared the sole leader

of Rome and Leinius was declared dead by

hanging. He renamed the eastern Roman

capital from Bisantium to Constantinople

to celebrate his victory. Then in 325

AD, Constantine presided over the first

council of Nissa when the 300 bishops

established the now famous Nyine Creed

which declared that Jesus Christ was

begotten, not made, and of one substance

with the father. Constantine was finally

baptized as a Christian on his deathbed

in 337 AD.

Come 370 AD, a new player was on the

scenes. The Huns were a barbaric nomadic

civilization who were masters of

warfare. According to legends, they were

taught horsemanship as early as the age

of three. Also, they would attack their

own with a sword to teach them how to

endure pain. These people weren't to be

messed lightly with. When they crossed

the Vulga River in 370 on their horses

and lusted for blood, the Allen

civilization didn't stand much chance. 2

years later, they attacked the Asher

Goths, an eastern tribe of Germanic

Goths, who harassed the Roman Empire by

frequently attacking their territories.

By 376, the Huns had attacked the

Visigothths, the western tribe of Goths,

and forced them to seek sanctuary within

the Roman Empire. As the Huns dominated

Goth and Visigothth lands, they earned a

new reputation as the new barbarians in

town and seemed unstoppable. By 395 AD,

they began invading Roman domains. And

some Roman Christians believed they were

devils who arrived straight from

hell. The reason they started invading

Rome was because of the death of

Theodosius the Great. His shining

achievement as emperor was keeping the

Goths and the Huns at bay. But on death,

he decided to follow the ideas of

Diolesian and split the empire up again.

splitting up control between his two

sons, Arcadius in the east and Honorius

in the west, making Theodosius the last

leader of a united

Rome. With Honorius in charge, the

incapable general made Western Rome an

easy target to be bullied. The

Visigothths, looking for a new place to

live, had their eyes set on Rome. So

throughout the early 410s, the Visigoths

ransacked various Roman cities. Then on

August 24th, 410, the Visigoth sacked

Rome, taking control of this historic

city. It was the first time in nearly

800 years that a foreign army occupied

the city of Rome. However, the Visigoths

couldn't maintain control of Rome.

Instead, they continued to ransack Roman

territories until they established their

kingdom in 418 in modern-day

Spain. While the prospects of existence

weren't so much better in Eastern Rome,

the notorious Attilaa the Hun was

gaining power and his brutal tactics

called him the scourge of God. After a

failed peace attempt in 441, Attilla and

his army stormed through the Balkans and

the Danaban frontier. Another peace

treaty was forged in 442, but Attilla

attacked again in

443, killing, ransacking, and pillaging

his way to the well fortified city of

Constantinople. However, due to

Constantinople's high walls, Attilla

couldn't conquer it. Instead, Attilla

was able to muster another peace

agreement. He would leave Constantinople

alone in exchange for an annual tribute

2,100 of gold. a staggering sum. Then in

451, the Huns invaded the Gauls,

allowing the once enemies of the

Visigoths and the Romans to wise up and

work together to fight the Huns.

According to legend, the night before

the imminent battle, Attilla consulted

sacrificed bones and saw that thousands

of his army would fall in the fight. The

next day, his premonition came true. In

the Battle of the Catalanian Plains,

after hours of ferocious fighting, tens

of thousands of soldiers lay dead,

giving Attilla his first and only

military defeat in history. However,

even after the loss, Attilla and his

army marched on and returned to Italy,

continuously ravaging the cities. In

452, with Rome in sight, he met Pope Leo

I, who acted as an emissary between

Aillaa and Rome. There's no record of

what they discussed. Still, according to

legend, the apparitions of St. Paul and

St. Peter appeared to Aillaa. They

threatened to kill him if he didn't

negotiate with Pope Leo I. Attilla

decided to pull out of Italy and return

to the great Hungarian plane. Whether

because of his fear of the Pope and his

saintly allies or because of his troops

were stretched too thin and weakened by

malaria.

However, the struggle for Western Rome

wasn't over. In 476 AD, the young

emperor Romulus Augustus had trouble

keeping power for himself as many Romans

felt he was illegitimate. So, the

Eastern Roman Empire sent the Germanic

general Odaser and his mercenaries to

suppress a revolt by the Roman army in

the region. However, instead of

supporting the Eastern Roman Empire,

Odaser saw an opportunity to seize power

for himself. He turned against the Roman

government and deposed the last Western

Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus,

effectively marking the end of the

Western Roman Empire. As the steps of

his victory, Odaser was declared the

king of Italy. However, Odaser's victory

was short-lived because in 493,

Theodoric the Great of the Ostrogoths

with the support of Eastern Roman

Emperor Zeno came in and created the

Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy, sending

Odius to meet his

fate. While Europe was in the crux of a

dark age, India under the Gupta Empire

was in a mathematical golden age. Great

mathematicians like Brahma Gupta started

using zero as a placeholder and as

various solutions for mathematical

equations. The astronomer Arabata was

able to calculate the circumference of

the earth. He proved the world was round

long before it was globally accepted.

Arabata was also able to develop methods

for calculating pi and square roots.

However, his crowning achievement was

creating the concept of an asytote,

which is a line that approaches the

curve but never touches

it. The Franks under Clovis I had been

engaged with the Alammani, another

Germanic tribe, and tensions between the

two groups were running high. In 496 AD

in the battle of Tobek, Clovis I led his

forces into battle against the Alammani

with both sides eager to gain the upper

hand in the ongoing struggle for power

and territory. As the Alammani began to

push the Franks to defeat and a moment

of desperation, Clovis called out to the

Christian God for assistance, promising

to convert to Christianity if he emerged

victorious. According to legend, a

sudden thunderstorm appeared and the

Franks could regroup and launch a

successful counterattack against the

Alammani. The battle ended in a decisive

victory for the Franks and Clovis kept

his promise and converted to

Christianity, officially cementing

Christianity to the forefront and

birthing the Frankish kingdom.

While the western Roman Empire might

have fallen in the east the Roman Empire

was changing. Many historians argue that

the Eastern Roman Empire based out of

Constantinople should be considered a

part of Rome. However, it is undeniable

that under Justinian I would lead the

Eastern half into its next chapter in

life, the Byzantine Empire. Whether it's

a continuation of the Roman Empire

before is a debate for another under.

Under the leadership of Justinian I,

like many Roman emperors before him, he

would expand the Byzantine Empire to

reach places such as Italy, North

Africa, and even Spain. He also

commissioned a team of legal scholars to

codify all the laws of the Roman Empire

known as the Corpus Jurus Civilis, which

became the basis of the European laws we

know today. He also commissioned the

world-renowned Hegia Sophia in

Constantinople where this beautiful

cathedral adorned with intricate mosaics

and marble decorations became the head

of the Eastern Orthodox

[Music]

Church. However, Jesus wasn't the only

prophet at the time. In the small town

of Mecca, a nomadic tribe called the Qur

gave birth to a man who would change the

religious world yet again. Muhammad.

Muhammad was orphaned at an early age

and was raised by his grandfather and

later his uncle. As he grew up, he

worked as a merchant, which earned him

the nickname Alamin, meaning the

trustworthy. On one of his pilgrimages

in 610, Muhammad meditated in a cave on

Mount Jabalor, the angel Gabriel

appeared and relayed the word of God.

Recite in the name of your Lord who

creates creates a man from a clot.

Recite for your Lord is most generous

became the opening verses of Surah.

Chapter 96 of the Quran. At first,

Muhammad was reluctant, not knowing how

to disclose this information. However,

soon enough, Muhammad began to gather a

small following, which was mocked by the

pagans of Mecca. However, when Muhammad

denounced idol worship, the leader of

Mecca knew that he was through. So,

through the resistance from Mecca,

Muhammad and his followers were

eventually forced to immigrate to

Medina, a city 260 mi away. there.

Muhammad was instrumental in ending

various civil wars, creating a

prosperous Muslim community.

Nevertheless, this prosperity would be

challenged by the members of Muhammad's

old tribe, the Curesh and their allies,

who marched up to Medina with a large

army to attack the Muslims. Muhammad

devised a plan that they could defend

the city if they dug a trench around its

perimeter, making it near impossible for

enemy forces to penetrate. For several

weeks, the Curesh tried to break through

the trench, trying and trying yet again.

Eventually, strong wind and heavy rain

caused the Curesh forces to abandon the

siege, marking the Muslims as

victorious. In 6:30, the Muslim army

marched into Mecca, taking the city with

minimum casualties. Muhammad gave

amnesty to the enemy leaders who once

opposed him, converting most of the

Meccan population to

Islam. At the time of Muhammad's death,

the Muslims had successfully united the

Arabian Peninsula under the banner of

Islam. After Muhammad's death, a series

of caiffs or leaders took over the

leadership of the Muslim community.

Beginning with Abu Bakr, a close

companion of the prophet. Under the

leadership of the caiffs, the Muslim

community continued to expand its

territory, conquering new lands and

spreading the message of Islam. At

first, Akubacher had his eyes set on the

Byzantine Empire's provinces of Syria,

taking over the crucial cities of

Damascus and Jerusalem. Then in 636, the

Arab forces invaded the Sassined Empire,

taking over their capital city in 637,

marking the end of the Sassined Empire.

Onward to Egypt they went, where after

years of fighting they successfully

defeated the Byzantine to take over the

city of Alexandria in 642 AD,

economically crippling the Byzantines.

By 716, the Arab forces had conquered

much of North Africa, Carthage, and

Spain, so that by 716, the Arabs had an

extensive empire from Lisbon to China.

After consolidating their hold on the

Iberian Peninsula, the Arabs launched

raids into neighboring Franchia,

modern-day France, in 732 AD, they

launched a significant invasion to

expand their territory northward. The

Arabs forces led by Amir Abdul Raman

Algafiki quickly conquered several

cities in the region, including Bordeaux

and Tours. However, Charles Martell, the

military leader of the Franks, assembled

a large army to meet the Arabs in

battle. The battle of Christianity

versus Islam. Both empires wanted to

keep their own faith. The Arabs wanted

to impose their religion onto the

Franks. The two forces clashed near

Tours on October 10th, 7:32 AD. The

battle was fierce and lasted several

days with both sides suffering heavy

casualties. In the end though, Charles

Martell and the Franks emerged

victorious and the Arab forces were

forced to retreat back to Spain, ending

the massive expansion of the Arabic

Empire.

[Music]

While in the west the definition of god

was war in China during the rule of the

tang religions like Buddhism, taoism and

confucianism all coexisted peacefully. A

citizen was able to believe what they

wanted to believe for many temples and

pagotas to be built across the empire.

Also during the tang the height of

Chinese poetry was upon us. Poets like

Leeo and Dufu created poems that later

became the foundations of Chinese

literature. Leeo wrote a poignant poem

called Zanzen on theQing thing mountain

translated by Sam Hamill. The birds have

vanished down the sky. Now the last

cloud drains away. We sit together the

mountain and me until only the mountain

remains.

Charlemagne, also known as Charles the

Great, became the king of the Franks in

768. Charlemagne was a skilled military

leader who expanded the Frankish Empire

through successful campaigns. He

conquered much of Western Europe,

including modern-day France, Germany,

Italy, and Spain. Charlemagne was also a

devout Christian, and worked to spread

Christianity throughout his empire.

In 785, Heron was declared caiff.

Instead of focusing on conquering like

his brethren, he instead focused on the

scientific growth in the new capital

city of Baghdad. Heron al-Rashid wanted

to create the House of Wisdom, a library

and research center that attracted

scholars from around the world. These

scholars would come to the house of

wisdom with the desire to learn. They've

translated the works of the past as well

as developing the science of algebra,

chemistry, sociology, and the concept of

infinity. While the Vikings had a

different idea of progress. The Vikings

were a group of univilized pagans from

modern-day Scandinavia who wanted to

gain material wealth. So, June 8th, 793

AD marked the beginning of the Viking

age in Europe. Lindesfarn was a small

isolated island off the northeast coast

of England that was home to a famous

monastery and considered one of Europe's

most important centers of learning. On

the day of the raid, a group of Viking

warriors, likely from Norway or Denmark,

landed on the island and attacked the

monastery. The Vikings pillaged the

monastery, killing many monks and taking

others as slaves. The raid was a brutal

and unexpected attack on a place of

great religious and cultural

significance and it sent shock waves

throughout

Europe. In 799 in Rome, Pope Leo III was

attacked by a faction of Rome who

believed that the Pope was guilty of

tyranny and serious personal misconduct.

So, Pope Leo III ran away to the

Frankish kingdom. After this,

Charlemagne and his Frank army provided

an escort for the Pope and restored him

to the papal office. But yet, the power

of the papacy was being questioned with

many people wanting it to go away, which

caused Charlemagne to go to Rome in late

800 to fight for his pope. For his

loyalty, on Christmas Day in the

Basilica of St. Peter. Pope Leo III

placed a crown on Charlemagne's head,

declaring him the new Holy Roman

Emperor, creating a new Roman Empire,

the Holy Roman Empire, or at least the

first rendition of it. Under

Charlemagne, the foundations of a

genuinely great empire were forming. But

once Charlemagne died in 814, the new

empire was bludgeoning with

problems.

His son Lewis the pious 788 to 840

inherited an empire filled with

problems. Many of his own citizens

viewed him as a strong Catholic who was

well-intentioned but was incredibly weak

and unable to do anything. As the

Vikings continued their raids along the

Ryan River, attacking Holy Roman Empire

cities such as Cologne, Trier, and

Mains, raiding various Catholic

monasteries and destroying religious

artifacts caused fear and hatred among

his citizens. Why would anyone trust a

leader if they can't stop barbaric

pagans? So, various local leaders

started to focus on defending their land

rather than relying on the central

government for defense. Hence beginning

the process of independently recreating

the Chinese system of feudalism. At this

time, people would willingly farm on

lands, giving up their freedom to these

local leaders to protect them from the

Vikings, creating the basis of a new

system of

feudalism. While the Holy Roman Empire

might have been fighting with the

Vikings and the Byzantines were fighting

with the Arabs, in 820, a group of Arab

raiders landed on the island of Cree.

Over the next several years, Arab forces

gradually gained control of the island,

overcoming the resistance of the

Byzantine defenders. The conquest was

completed in 827 and Cree became part of

the Arab Empire. The conquest of Sicily

and Sardinia followed a similar pattern.

In 827, a large Arab fleet landed on

Sicily and Arab forces quickly gained

control of much of the island. They then

moved on to Sardinia which fell to the

Arab invaders in

828. In the Holy Roman Empire once Lewis

the Pious died in 840 AD. So did the

Charlemagne Empire. The infighting

between family members grew leading to

the Holy Roman Empire being divided

between three family members in the

famous Treaty of Verdon. In the west,

the formation of the West Frankish

kingdom was given to Charlemagne's

grandson, Charles the Bald, in

modern-day France. In the East, the East

Frankish Kingdom was given to another

grandson, Lewis the German, which was

obviously settled in modern-day Germany,

while the Middle Kingdom was given to

Charlemagne's eldest son, Lair. However,

being squeezed in between the West and

East Frankish kingdoms gave the Middle

Kingdom a short lifespan and was

practically

irrelevant. The Vikings weren't just a

problem for mainland Europe. They were

pillaging everything in mainland

England. So, in 871, the new king of

Wessex, Alfred the Great, rose to power

with one thing in mind, keeping everyone

safe. Alfred built a network of

fortifications known as burrs designed

to protect his people from Viking

attacks. He also developed new military

tactics and strategies and fostered

alliances with other Anglo-Saxon

kingdoms. Unlike in Great Britain

though, the Vikings were actually

invited to Russia. According to Russian

legend, the tribes in Russia were tired

of dealing with political strife. So

they invited the Verangians, a sect of

Vikings to establish order and a

government over there. Hence, Rurick

came with his two brothers to the city

of Navgarod and using the Vikings famous

force, they were able to establish order

in the city. Declaring Rurick as their

new king, creating the Keieven Roose

dynasty. Under the military leadership

of Oleg, one of the Ruric Kingsmen, the

Keieven RS started establishing Smolinsk

and Kiev in modern-day Ukraine, creating

the forefront of Russia today.

While back in England, expanding upon

his grandfather Alfred the Great's

alliance network, Athlan was declared

king of Essex, Athlan was able to get

all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to work

together to fend off the Vikings of the

British Isles. He was declared to be the

first king of England due to his ability

to navigate alliances and keep everyone

safe, beginning one of the longest

monarchies in human history.

While the East Frankish kingdom was

facing a similar problem, the pagan

maguars were attacking everyone across

the kingdom, leaving the kingdom to live

in fear. However, King Otto of the East

Frankish Empire was able to defeat the

pesky Maguars at the Battle of Lechfeld

955. Then in 961, he could fully conquer

all of the kingdoms of Italy, restoring

Christendom to all the former pagans. So

in 962 Otto I was coronated to Pope John

I 12th in Rome to be the new Holy Roman

Emperor. In France though the West

Frankish kingdom was struggling because

in 987 King Louis V a direct descendant

of Charlemagne died at age 20 without

leaving an heir to take over their

dynasty leaving the French monarchy in

peril. So the French aristocracy had an

election between Hugh Kappit, a noble

with extensive lands in the region of

Isle de France and Charles, Duke of

Lower Lraine. With the support of

Adelber, the Archbishop of Roms, Hugh

Kapet became the first king of France,

starting the Capescian dynasty.

[Music]

However, at this time, the typical

person in Europe was always living in

fear. Every civilization was on the

verge of conquering. They've all become

landhungry and were willing to fight for

it. So, across Europe at this time,

every civilization started to entrench

their society in the ideas of feudalism

leading to another social pyramid. At

the bottom lay the serfs. Their job was

to farm the land and ensure everyone was

fed. Then came the knight who provided

protection for the people. Then came the

nobles who ruled over a specific

territory owning the land. Then came the

kings as previously mentioned who gave

lands to the nobles. But all the way at

the top was the pope because the pope

could speak directly to God and had

godgiven ownership of all the lands.

In the early 11th century, Leaf Ericson

was sent on a voyage to discover lands

west of Greenland. If you look at a map,

west of Greenland is the Americas. So,

Leaf and his crew ventured to this new

mystical land called Vinland in

modern-day New Finland, Canada. Leaf and

his crew spent the winter in Vinland,

establishing a small settlement and

trading with the local indigenous

people. They also explored the

surrounding area which they found rich

in natural resources including timber,

fish, and game. Leaf and his crew

returned to Greenland in the spring

where they were greeted as heroes for

discovering new lands. Little did Leaf

know that he discovered a new continent

for his European people.

[Music]

Though significantly less is known about

the Americas, some historians believe

that at the time a similar type of

expansion happened in the American

continent like in Europe. Sadly, we just

don't have the historical records from

this unique period. We know that the

Mayans down in South America were

building the impressive cities of Tikl,

Palenke, and Chichinitsa having a

population of anywhere between 2 and 10

million. We also know that there were

various tribes across the north,

including the Cherokee, the Navajo, and

the Inuits. The Inuits are most likely

to have interacted with Leaf's fleet.

While back in Europe, in the holy city

of Jerusalem laid the very famous

church, the church of the holy sepulker.

According to Christian belief, this

church was built on the day Jesus was

crucified and resurrected. However, in

1009 AD, Arab Califf al-Hakim ordered

the destruction of this sacred holy

site. All of the sacred sites were

destroyed, leaving them completely

annihilated. When the news reached

Europe, Christians were horrified. Pope

Sergius IV sent a circular letter to all

churches calling for a holy fight in the

Middle East and the expulsion of Muslims

from the Holy

Land. But yet, the Arabs of the Abbised

Caliphate would actually be expelled by

another before Jerusalem. The Seljic

Turks, a central Asian Turk people of

the Muslim faith, were beginning to grow

their empire. In 1055 they took over the

abbiscided caliphate capital city of

Baghdad. The Seljic Turks initially

respected the caiff but the Seljixs took

over the city over time. In 1076 they

captured Medina followed the next year

by the capturing of Mecca, the holiest

city in Islam.

[Music]

Due to this, the Muslim world wasn't

ready for Pope Urban II at the Council

of Claremont in 1095 to call upon all

Christians to take up arms and liberate

the Holy Land from Muslim rule. The Pope

promised spiritual rewards and

forgiveness of sins to those who joined

the crusade, and many knights, nobles,

and peasants were inspired to take up

the cause. Many European nobles such as

Godfrey of Bullan to lose Bohem of

Toronto and Robert of Flanders brought

their armies from Europe on their

journey to Jerusalem. While the

Christians were united, the Muslims were

divided and unable to put up a strong

defense against the crusaders. Hence,

the Christians took over the county of

Adessa in 1098 and finally the holy city

of Jerusalem in 1099.

However, the crusade wasn't done. In

1144, the Muslim forces led by Turkish

ruler Ahmad Adenzingi launched a siege

against Adessa. The city was poorly

defended and the crusaders could not

resist the Muslim forces for long. After

a siege of several weeks, the city was

breached and the Muslim forces overran

the city, killing or enslaving much of

the population. But the Christians

weren't happy with that. So in 1147 the

massive armies of Europe came back with

attempts to free Adessa. The crusaders

faced significant logistical challenges

including shortages of food and

supplies. They were also plagued by

infighting and political rivalries which

called the campaign to be in ruin after

the disastrous loss of the battle of

Anob in 1149 which resulted in the

capture of King Louis VI and the loss of

much of the crusader

army. While the Christians and Muslims

were fighting, the Hindus in the Camar

Empire under King Surya II built a

fantastic temple for the Hindu god

Vishnu called the Ankor Watt. Vishnu is

an important god in Hinduism known as

the preserver and protector of the

universe. He has 10 incarnations or

avatars and is often depicted as having

blue skin and holding four objects. As

you approach Ankorwatt, you are greeted

by a massive moat and a grand entrance

gate adorned with intricate carvings of

mythological creatures and deities. The

main temple rises like a towering

mountain with intricate carvings and

reliefs that tell the stories of Hindu

mythology and the history of the Chimera

Empire. The temple's galleries are lined

with stunning bass reliefs depicting

scenes of battles, ceremonies, and daily

life in ancient Cambodia. At the heart

of the complex is the central sanctuary,

a massive pyramid-like structure

surrounded by smaller temples and

courtyards. The sanctuary is considered

the most sacred part of the temple

adorned with intricately carved statues

and images of Hindu gods and goddesses.

It was an incredible feat of human

ingenuity. But yet in 1187, the Muslim

commander from Egypt, Saladine, became

fed up with the Christian rule of

Jerusalem. So he declared a holy war

across the Muslim world in order to

reconquer Jerusalem from the Christians.

The battle occurred on a scorching hot

day in the hills near the Sea of

Galilee. Saladine's forces numbered

around 20,000. The crusaders had a much

smaller force of around 12,000 knights,

soldiers, and civilians under the aptly

named king, King Guy. The battle began

with skirmishes between the two sides,

but soon escalated into a fullscale

engagement. Saladine's forces could use

their superior cavalry to encircle the

crusaders, who could not break through

the Muslim lines. The heat and thirst

soon took a toll on the crusaders, who

were weakened and disoriented. The

Muslim forces took advantage of the

situation. They launched a fierce

attack, breaking through the crusader

lines and capturing many knights. King

Guy and a small group of knights were

able to escape the battlefield. Still,

the majority of the crusader army was

destroyed. The loss of the battle was a

severe blow to the Christian forces in

the region, and it paved the way for

Saladine's conquest of Jerusalem.

But the Christians weren't going to

allow that. So guess what happened?

Another crusade. This time the three

most powerful monarchs at the time,

Emperor Frederick I of the Holy Roman

Empire, King Richard I of England and

King Philip II of France, sent their

best armies to reconquer the Holy City

of Jerusalem. However, all the force in

the world couldn't retake Jerusalem from

the grips of Saladine, leaving the Third

Crusade to be a

failure. Genghis was born to a mother

kidnapped by his father and forced into

marriage. Legend holds that he came into

this world clutching a blood clot in his

right hand. Before he turned 10, his

father was poisoned to death by an enemy

clan. Genghis' clan then deserted him,

his mother, and his six siblings to

avoid having to feed them. However, he

soon began to make friends with the

other clans throughout the Mongolian

mountainside. By 1206, he had united all

the various tribes, uniting 1 million

people. For the time, Genis was quite

progressive. He made it illegal to sell

and kidnap women, banished the idea of

enslavement of any Mongol, and even

allowed freedom of religion. When it

came to war, though, Genghis was as

barbaric as the next one. His first

campaign was against the Shisha Kingdom

in 129. His army of mostly cavalry men

on horses quickly outnumbered and

destroyed the kingdom. His next target

was the Xin dynasty in China. From 1211

to 1214, the outnumbered Mongols ravaged

the countryside, causing food shortages,

resulting in the Xinn Army killing tens

of thousands of their own peasants just

so their elites could live. In 1214, the

Mongols besieged the capital of Zongu,

now Beijing, and burnt it to the ground.

In the early 13th century, King Jon was

facing increasing pressure from his

barrens who were demanding greater

rights and protections under the law. In

response to their demands, Jon agreed to

meet with the barrens and negotiate a

settlement. The result of these

negotiations was the Magna Carta, a

document that set out a series of rights

and freedoms that the king could not

violate. Among these rights were the

right to a fair trial, the right to due

process of law, and the right to be

protected from arbitrary arrest and

imprisonment. The Magna Carta also

established the principle of habius

corpus, which required the government to

produce a prisoner in court and provide

a lawful reason for their detention.

This principle has been a cornerstone of

modern legal systems around the world.

Then in 1217, there was another crusade.

This time led by King Andrew II of

Hungary and Duke Leopold V 6th of

Austria with the same goal in mind to

take over Jerusalem. The crusaders

successfully captured the city of

Dametta in 1219, but they could not

advance further into Egypt. After a

series of setbacks, including capture

and imprisonment of many crusaders, the

Christian forces were forced to abandon

their campaign in Egypt. The crusaders

eventually agreed to a treaty with the

Muslim forces, allowing them to leave

Egypt unharmed, but without achieving

their ultimate

goal. Genghaskhan wasn't done, though.

in 1219 went to war against the Quzam

Empire in present-day Turk Manistan,

Usbekiststan, Afghanistan, and Iran.

During his raids, the Mongol hordes

swept through one city after another,

taking over the likes of Burkara,

Samarind, and Arjench. Skilled workers

such as carpenters and jewelers were

usually saved, while aristocrats and

resisting soldiers were killed.

Unskilled workers, meanwhile, were often

used as human shields during the next

assault. No one knows with any certainty

how many people died during

Genghaskhan's wars, in part because the

Mongols propagated their vicious image

as a way of spreading terror. At

Genghaskhan's death, he controlled a

massive territory from the Sea of Japan

to the Caspian Sea. However, even more

impressively, around 8% of the men in

South Asia descend from Genghask Khan

today. In 1228, Emperor Frederick II of

the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer

the Holy Land, but failed, ending the

Sixth Crusade. Of course, the Holy Roman

Empire couldn't be the only one

crusading. King Louis the 9inth of

France in 1248 decided to start the

seventh crusade to retake Jerusalem but

he was taken prisoner by the Muslims and

forced to pay a hefty ransom as he

retreated. However, that didn't deter

King Louis the 9th because in 1270 he

was at it again trying to free Jerusalem

from the grips of Muslim rule but this

time he died of dysentery. Once King

Louis the 9inth died, his troops

retreated, creating the eighth and final

time there was a

crusade in England. Though in 1295,

England was making a diplomatic headway.

In a letter summoning Parliament, King

Edward I wrote, "Since the most

righteous law of the emperors ordains

that what touches all should be approved

by all, so it appears that common

dangers should be met by remedies agreed

upon in common." As King Edward, I would

then request a tenth of the incomes of

nobles and an 11th of the income of

knights, creating one of the first

parliaments we would see in the new

age. While down in Africa, a leader of

extravagant wealth, Mansam Musa, was

gaining power on his famous Haj, a

religious Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca

that every Muslim should make at least

once in his life. Mansam Musa with his

caravan of camels and an army of

scholars gave vast amounts of gold to

any poor person he saw. Hence crashing

all of the economies in northern Africa

due to the inflation of gold. When

Mansam Musa returned to Mali, he made it

his life purpose to make Timbuktu the

Muslim capital of knowledge. So Mansam

Musa invested heavily in building the

University of Sor. Various Islamic faith

scholars quickly made their way to Sanor

to study Islamic theology, law and

literature with over 1 million

manuscripts. Mansamusa was also a very

religious man with a policy that he

commissioned a new mosque every Friday.

However, sadly though, only the

Jingerabber mosque in Timbuktu stood the

test of time.

In the Americas though, another built on

riches was being created. As Aztec

legend has it, the god Weeds poachi

directed them to build where they saw an

eagle perched on a cactus eating a

snake. When they saw this exact scene on

an island located in what was once Lake

Texoko, they interpreted it as a sign

from their god and founded Tenno Chidlan

on that island. As time passed,

Tenochidlon started to build impressive

temples such as the great temple. The

great temple comprised of two main

structures dedicated to the gods

Wheatilapoi and Lelay. The city itself

was most fascinating. It was designed

with a complex system of canals and

causeways to help control flooding and

facilitate transport across the city.

while they started to farm on floating

gardens known as chinampas on the

shallow waters of Lake Tex Cocoa which

were used to grow crops such as maize

beans and

squash. As Mali and the Aztecs were

building their cities, England and

France were in war for 100 years. The

origins of the conflict lay with the

status of the duche of Gaen. In basic

capitalistic terms, this was owned by

the British crown. However, the land

itself was in France. The second reason

was that the last direct descendant of

Charlemagne, King Charles IV, died in

1328. So, the next closest relative was

Edward III, the king of England. So,

King Edward III claimed the rule of

France in

1337, which was not liked by the French

people. As the petty, erratic hundred

years war raged on, the people of the

world had to face a pandemic like no

other, the bubanic plague. As the

Italian poet Giovani Bokeacio wrote, "At

the beginning of the malady, certain

swellings either on the groin or under

the armpits waxed to the bigness of a

common apple, others to the size of an

egg, some more and some less, and these

the vulgar named plague boils."

Historians believe this pandemic was

spread by rats traveling through ships

across Europe and merchants throughout

the Silk Road. No matter how this plague

was produced, around 75 to 200 million

people died. With the death of so many

people, especially the poor, land owners

and nobles were required to allow

farmers to keep more of the product they

farmed, leading to more workers

rights. In China though, a group of

rebels known as the Red Turbans revolted

against the Mongol rulers of China. The

Red Turbans were led by a man named Zu

Yen Jang. Born into a poor peasant

family, Zu built a strong following

among the rebel forces and eventually

emerged as their leader. In

1368, Zu declared himself emperor and

established the Ming dynasty, marking

the beginning of a new era in Chinese

history.

In 1428 at the age of 16, Joan left her

home in the village of Dommy and

traveled to the court of Charles IIth

where she asked for permission to lead

the French army against the English. At

first, her request was met with

skepticism and disbelief. Still, Joan

persisted and eventually won the support

of the French commanders. Joan's first

major military victory came in the siege

of Orleans in 1429. She led the French

troops in a series of daring attacks on

the English forces and she broke the

siege and liberated the city. This

victory boosted French morale and helped

to turn the tide of the war in their

favor. Over the next several months,

Joan led the French army to victories

against the English, including the

Battle of Pate in June 1429.

However, her success also made her

enemies in the English and French court.

In 1430, she was captured by the English

and put on trial for heresy and

witchcraft. Joan was subjected to a

grueling trial. She was accused of

various crimes, including dressing in

men's clothing, practicing sorcery, and

hearing voices. Despite the odds against

her, Joan remained steadfast in her

faith and her belief that she was

carrying out God's will. In the end,

Joan was found guilty and sentenced to

death by burning at stake. She was

executed on May 30th,

1431 at 19. Then 20 years later in the

battle of Castellian, Charles IIIth of

France led a French army which defeated

the English army, effectively ending

English territorial claims in

France. While back in the great city of

Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire was

declining, weakened by years of war,

political instability, and economic

turmoil. In contrast, the Ottoman Empire

led by Sultan Memed II was on the rise

and the Sultan saw an opportunity to

expand his empire and gain control of

the strategic city of Constantinople. By

1453, Memed II led an army of 80,000

soldiers, including elite Janisary

troops and a powerful artillery force to

besiege Constantinople. The Byzantine

defenders, led by Emperor Constantine XI

11th, were vastly outnumbered and

outgunned. They faced a seemingly

impossible task to hold off the Ottoman

assault. The Ottomans bombarded the city

with artillery for nearly 2 months,

causing extensive damage to the walls

and fortifications. The Byzantine

defenders, meanwhile, struggled to

maintain morale and keep their troops

fed and supplied. Then on the fateful

day, May 29th, 1453, the Ottomans

launched a massive assault on the city.

Climbing up covered by siege towers,

they were able to breach the walls and

gain access to the city. Despite putting

up a valiant defense, the Byzantine

defenders were overwhelmed, and the

Ottomans were able to storm the city and

capture the capital, causing the great

Byzantine Empire to fall. In

1453, all paths no longer led to Rome

and all traces back to the Empire of

Caesar were erased. It was replaced by

the beginning of utter Ottoman

domination in the region, ushering in a

new era of Turkish power and influence

in the

Mediterranean. While the Byzantines

might have been falling, the Russians

were finally gaining their independence.

At the time, the Mongol Empire was

ruling over Russia, demanding that

various Russian towns pay tribute or

face the wrath of the Mongols. However,

in 1472, Ivan the Great refused to pay

such tribute. Over the next several

years, he built up his military strength

and was able to drive out the Mongol

garrisons from various cities and towns

throughout Russia. In 1480, the Mongols

demanded that Ivan pay tribute or face

military action. But after a tense

standoff, they finally retreated. Ivan's

victory was the beginning of a free

Russia and the decline of the Mongolian

Empire. Then in 1492, as Christopher

Columbus sailed, the ocean blue, the

Europeans discovered the new world. set

initially on finding a path to India.

Instead, he landed on an island in the

Bahamas, which he aptly named San

Salvador. When he and his crew set up

camp, he met the Lucayians, skilled

fishermen and farmers, who welcomed him

and his crew and provided them with food

and

supplies. While back in Europe, a golden

age of culture was upon us. In 1503,

Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa.

Da Vinci's biographer Walter Isacson

says, "The Mona Lisa to me is the

greatest emotional painting ever done.

The way the smile flickers makes it a

work of art and science because Leonardo

understood optics, the muscles of the

lips, and how light strikes the eye. All

of it goes into making the Mona Lisa's

smile so mysterious and elusive." In

1504, Michelangelo sculpted David.

Michelangelo would say, "In every block

of marble, I see a statue as plain as

though it stood before me, shaped and

perfect in attitude and action. I have

only to he away the rough walls that

imprison the lovely apparition to reveal

it to the other eyes as mine see it."

While in 1506, Michelangelo was painting

the magnificent painting of the cyine

chapel. While in the political world,

Nicolo Makavelli is one of, if not the

most influential pieces of literature we

have today. The prince is a political

manifesto that comments on the past

civilizations we've heard about. In this

video, Mchavelli writes, "It is much

safer to be feared than loved because

love is preserved by the link of

obligation, which owing to the beastness

of men is broken at every opportunity

for their advantage. But fear preserves

you by a dread of punishment which never

fails. Think about the ordinary farmer.

Think about the man who spends

generations of their life farming,

giving heavy taxes to a noble lord for

doing nothing except protecting them.

Why won't the farmers rebel? It's

because they're afraid of what would

happen without their leaders. Without

the elites, the Huns or the Mongols can

come to your farm and destroy you on

their own. So, you live in fear as to

what might happen to you, leaving you to

give your wheat to said leader.

[Music]

Martin Luther though didn't just report

on the basics of human nature. Martin

wanted to make a difference and was sick

of the Catholic Church. At the time, the

Catholic Church was selling indulgences,

which were certificates that people

could purchase to reduce the amount of

time they would spend in purgatory after

they died. Luther believed this practice

was corrupt and went against the Bible's

teachings which emphasized the

importance of repentance and faith over

material wealth. In protest, he wrote a

series of 95 thesis or arguments

challenging the church's authority and

calling for reform. On October 31st,

1517, Luther nailed his 95 thesis to the

door of the castle church in Wittenberg,

which was a common way of announcing a

public debate or discussion. Luther's 95

thesis sparked a debate within the

church and among European scholars and

theologians. Some people agreed with his

criticisms of the church, while others

saw him as a heretic and a threat to the

established order. The beginning of

Protestantism was upon

[Music]

us. In 1519 though, the Spanish

concistadors under the leadership of

Hernand Cortez arrived on the Aztec

shores. They were greeted by the Aztecs

who gave gifts of gold and silver of

incredible wealth to the Spanish as they

believed that the Spaniards were

emissaries of the god Ketzel Colottel.

However, Cortez soon revealed his true

intentions to conquer the Aztec Empire

and claim its wealth for Spain. Over

several years, Cortez and his forces

engaged in a series of battles with the

Aztecs. Marked by intense violence and

brutality, the Spanish were aided by

their superior military technology,

including guns and cannons, and by the

support of indigenous allies, who were

the enemies of the Aztecs. Despite being

vastly outnumbered, Cortez and his men

made significant gains against the

Aztecs. Eventually laying siege to their

capital city of Tinoidlon. After months

of fighting, the city fell to the

Spanish in 1521 and the Aztec Empire was

effectively destroyed. Then following

the strategy of Cortez, Francisco

Pizarro led an expedition that conquered

the Incan Empire in present-day Peru.

Though the violence was authoritarian,

the biohazards were even more demanding.

The Europeans, due to having survived

illnesses such as the bubanic plague and

smallpox, developed immunity to many of

these diseases that they've one way or

another spread to the native people,

essentially over time killing them off.

Under Sullean the Magnificent's

leadership, the Ottoman Empire became

one of the most powerful and influential

empires in world history. Sullean was a

brilliant strategist and military leader

and his reign was marked by significant

conquests and political achievements.

Like many other leaders, he set out to

conquer the world. By the end of his

reign, Sullean the Magnificent presided

over a vast empire that stretched from

southeastern Europe to the deserts of

Arabia and from the shores of the

Mediterranean to the plains of Persia.

His conquests included the capture of

Belgrade in Budapest in Europe,

Jerusalem and Mecca in the Middle East,

and Tabri and Baghdad in Persia. The

Ottomans also became the dominant naval

power in the Mediterranean with control

over North African cities such as Alers

and Tunis creating the dominant Ottoman

[Music]

civilization. But yet all things fall

when one is in love. And the murderhappy

King Henry had fallen in love with Anne

Boland and was desperate to marry her.

However, Katherine of Aragon was still

alive and the Catholic Church did not

recognize divorce. Henry's solution was

to break away from the Catholic Church

and established the Church of England

with himself as the head. In 1534, Henry

passed the Act of Supremacy, which

declared that the king, not the Pope,

was the supreme head of the Church of

England, leaving the Catholic Church to

be angry and excommunicate Henry VIIth,

leaving a schism between the Church of

England and the Catholic Church even

today. Ivan the Terrible is now the

ruler of Russia. In the early years of

his reign, Ivan enjoyed significant

success, launching military campaigns

against neighboring kingdoms and

expanding Russia's borders. He also

oversaw the construction of magnificent

public works, including St. Basil's

Cathedral in

Moscow. However, as Ivan grew older, he

became increasingly paranoid and

erratic. He launched a series of brutal

purges and executions, targeting anyone

he perceived as threatening his power.

He also had a volatile temper, lashing

out at advisers and nobles who dared to

question his decisions. In 1560, Ivan

suffered a devastating personal loss

when his beloved wife Anastasia died.

This event seems to have triggered a

significant psychological breakdown and

Ivan became increasingly unstable and

violent. He launched a series of bloody

campaigns against his own people,

including the notorious Opri Nina, a

campaign of terror and repression that

killed thousands of Russians and

destroyed countless homes and families.

Truly deserving of the name terrible.

While Russia was going through that,

England was on the rise with the start

of the English Renaissance under the

leadership of Queen Elizabeth I.

Elizabeth and playwrights dominated the

scene, creating written words that were

poetic in language and poignant in

meeting. They've even written plays

about people we've already talked about.

William Shakespeare wrote many plays

including histories. Julius Caesar which

was about the assassination of Julius

Caesar, King John which was about the

Hundred Years War and Henry VIIIth was a

play about showing human needs to gain

power. Other notable playwrights who

filled the scene were Christopher Marlo,

Ben Johnson and John

Webster. While on the other side of the

world, the English colony of Jamestown

was forming in Virginia under the

Virginia Trading Company. Slightly up

north, Samuel de Champlain was

establishing the French colony of Quebec

[Music]

Canada. While back in the old world,

they were having a new era of fighting,

the 30 Years War. This time it was

between the Protestants and the

Catholics. It began in 1618 when the

Holy Roman Emperor attempted to impose

Catholicism on the Protestant population

of Bohemia. The Bohemians rebelled and

soon the conflict spread throughout the

region. Over the next 30 years, armies

marched and counter marched across

Europe, leaving a trail of destruction

and devastation. The war was

characterized by brutal sieges, bloody

battles, and atrocities committed by

both sides. At its height, the war

involved most of the major powers of

Europe, including France, Spain, Sweden,

and the Holy Roman Empire. It was fought

along religious, political, and economic

lines, with each side vying for

dominance and control. The war finally

ended in 1648 with the signing of the

peace of West Failia. The treaty

recognized the Dutch Republic's

independence, established the individual

state sovereignty within the Holy Roman

Empire, and ended the religious

conflicts that fueled the

[Music]

war. While in China, the Ming court was

plagued by corruption, factionalism, and

economic decline. The emperor at the

time, Chongzen, faced mounting pressure

from his advisers to strengthen the

military and defend against the Manchu

threat. However, his efforts were

hindered by infighting among officials

and a lack of resources. In 1644, the

Manchu army led by Prince Dorgon

launched a massive invasion of China.

The Ming army, weakened by years of

neglect and corruption, was no match for

the highly disciplined and skilled

Manchu forces. The Manchus quickly

conquered Beijing and installed their

puppet emperor, ending the Ming dynasty,

continuing the cycle of dynasties in

China. While in Spain, King Charles II

died without having any heirs, creating

a real political crisis of who should be

the leader. King Louis I 14th of France

supported his grandson Philillip as the

rightful heir to the Spanish throne

hoping to secure French influence over

Spain and its territories. On the other

hand, Emperor Liupold I of Austria

supported the candidacy of Archduke

Charles, a member of the Habsburg

dynasty who was seen as a potential ally

against French expansionism. The

conflict soon escalated into a major war

with many European powers taking sides

and forming alliances. The principal

belligerent were France and Spain

against a coalition of Austria, Great

Britain, the Dutch Republic, Portugal,

and several other minor powers. The war

ended with the treaty of Utrect in

1713 which recognized Philip as king of

Spain but required him to renounce any

claims to the French throne and seed

some territories to Great Britain and

Austria. The Treaty of Rastat signed the

following year officially ended the

[Music]

war. In 1707, the acts of the union were

passed by the parliaments of England and

Scotland, which united the two kingdoms

into a single political entity known as

Great Britain, hence creating the legal

foothold that is Great Britain. However,

Scotland took a disliking to this. There

were protests and uprisings in the years

following the Union, including the

Jacobite risings of 1715 and

1745, which aimed to restore the

Scottish monarchy and independence.

[Music]

Then on July 4th,

1776, a group of American patriots stood

in a room in Philadelphia signing a

document that would say the words, "We

hold these truths to be self-evident,

that all men are created equal, that

they are endowed by their creator with

certain unalienable rights, that among

these are life, liberty, and the pursuit

of happiness. War in the Americas was

on.

But back in Europe, the tone was quite

different. Adam Smith published the

famous book, The Wealth of Nations: The

Foundations of Lz's Fair Economics,

which essentially says the market would

balance itself out over time. In

Austria, Mosart was performing his

magnumopus, the Hafner Serenade.

Mosart's Hafner Serenade is a charming

and elegant work featuring courtly dance

music and light lyrical melodies. Its

graceful melodies, subtle harmonies, and

elegant instrumental writing

characterize

[Music]

it. As the war continued, King George

III sent his armies of the masses over

to America. Though the colonists had

little military training, their

knowledge of the terrain and guerilla

tactics made them nearly invisible. At

the same time, the Red Army coats were

easy to see for the Americans. In the

summer of 1781, George Washington and

French General Rosh Shambo marched their

forces south to Virginia, where they

laid siege to Cornwallis and his army at

Yorktown. The British were trapped and

could not escape by land or sea. The

siege dragged on for weeks. The American

and French forces bombarded the British

with artillery. They dug trenches to

inch their way closer to the British

defensive, the French Navy defeated the

British Navy in a crucial naval battle

off the coast of Virginia. Cutting off

Cornwallis's only escape route by sea.

On October 14th, 1781, the American and

French forces launched a massive assault

on the British defenses. The British

fought valiantly, but were vastly

outnumbered and outgunned, and they soon

began to falter. On October 19th,

Cornwallis surrendered his army to

Washington, effectively ending the war.

The victory at Yorktown was a decisive

moment in the war, and it marked the end

of British rule in America and the

beginning of a new

[Music]

experiment. With America finally being

free from the totally tyrannical grips

of Britain, they had one issue. How were

they going to lead? Were they going to

make General George Washington their

monarch? Therefore, democracy was

chosen. However, Plato made a good point

many years ago that the common man was

incapable and not wise enough to pick a

better leader to lead them to success.

So the American founded constitutional

convention came up with this idea of the

electoral college where the common man

would vote for a particular person who

would then have a say in who could be

president. So instead of the president

being directly voted on by the people,

they would vote on elites who would then

vote for the president directly.

The French then noticed how well the

American Revolution went. At the time,

the French were ruled by King Louis V

16th and his wife, Queen Marie

Antuinette. As Queen Marie Antwanette

told the peasants, "Let them eat cake."

The people of France got together. They

decided they wanted more say in how the

country was run. and they formed a group

called the National Assembly and started

making new laws to give them more

rights. One of the most famous events of

the French Revolution was the storming

of the Bastile. This was a prison that

represented the king's power and the

people wanted to show that they were not

afraid of him. They broke into the

prison and freed the prisoners which

started a revolution throughout France.

Many influential people lost their heads

during the revolution, including King

Louis V 16th and his wife, Queen Marie

Antuinette. The people were tired of

being ruled by a king and queen who

didn't care about them, and they wanted

to create a new system where everyone

would have a say, and the people of

France voted in Maximleian Robes Pierre.

In 1789, Rose Pierre was elected as a

delegate to the estates general, which

was convened to address France's

financial crisis. He quickly emerged as

a leading voice in the National

Assembly, advocating for the ordinary

people's rights and opposing the

aristocracy's power. As the revolution

continued though, Robes Pierre became

increasingly radical in his views.

Advocating for the execution of King

Louis V 16th and the establishment of a

republic, he was elected to the powerful

committee of public safety in

1793. Tasked with protecting the

revolution and rooting out enemies of

the state. Under Robes Pierre's

leadership, the committee launched a

period of intense repression known as

the reign of terror. Thousands of people

were arrested, tried, and executed for

crimes against the revolution. Robes

Pierre became known as a ruthless and

uncompromising figure. However, Robes

Pierre's power began to wne as the

people grew tired of the violence and

the instability of the revolution. In

1794, he was arrested and imprisoned

along with his closest allies. On July

28th,

1794, Robespierre was taken to the

guillotine and

executed. The execution marked the end

of the reign of terror and democracy for

now in France. Instead, they moved to a

directory. A directory is a government

led by a five member executive council

known as the directory which was chosen

by the council of elders. This

legislative body was also part of the

new government. The directory was meant

to serve as a moderating force balancing

the interests of the various factions

that had emerged during the

revolution. However, the directory

concept wasn't successful as well. So,

General Napoleon Bonapart decided to

overthrow the government and begin his

conquests to take over the

world. So, off Napoleon went to conquer

much of Europe. In 1805, Napoleon

defeated a combined Austro-Russian army

at the Battle of Ostlitz, solidifying

his position as one of Europe's most

powerful leaders. He then conquered much

of the continent, including Spain,

Portugal, and the Netherlands. In 1812,

Napoleon invaded Russia with a massive

army. Still, the campaign proved

disastrous and his forces were decimated

by the harsh Russian winter. The defeat

marked the beginning of Napoleon's

downfall. In 1814, the European powers

allied against Napoleon and invaded

France, forcing him to abdicate his

throne and go into exile on the island

of Elba. However, he returned to France

in 1815 in what became known as the 100

days and briefly regained power before

being defeated by the British and

Prussian armies at the Battle of

Waterlue. While back in the Americas,

Simone Bolivar was on his military

campaigns to free Latin American

countries from the grasp of the Spanish

colonial rule. Believar began his

military campaigns in Venezuela in 1810

where he led a successful uprising

against the Spanish colonial

authorities. He then moved on to

Colombia where he won a series of

important victories against the Spanish

including the battle of Boyaka in 1819

which secured the independence of

Colombia. Bolavar then turned his

attention to Ecuador and Peru where he

won a series of decisive battles that

helped secure both countries

independence. He captured the city of

Lima in

1824 effectively ending Spanish control

of Peru. Bolivar's final military

campaign was in Bolivia where he led the

fight for independence against the

Spanish in 1825. Bolivia was named in

honor of Bolivar who played a critical

role in its

[Music]

liberation. In 1848, two men had an idea

that would spark debate worldwide. Karl

Marx and Frederick Engles wrote the book

called the Communist Manifesto which is

a book about the idea of communism where

instead of a capitalistic system where

the nobles or bgeoa own everything and

the workers and proletariats work for

slave wages instead what if the

proletariats own the means of production

and all work together as Markx and

Engles would write let the ruling

classes tremble at a communistic

revolution

The proletarians would have nothing to

lose but their chains and they have and

they'd to win. They would also write the

need for a constantly expanding market

for its products chases the bourgeoisi

over the whole surface of the globe. It

must nestle everywhere, settle

everywhere, establish connections

everywhere. Right after the writing of

the Communist Manifesto began a period

in Europe known as the scramble for

Africa, it all began in the 1870s when

European countries began to explore the

interior of Africa, looking for new

territories to claim and resources to

exploit. At first, the European powers

were cautious, sending explorers and

missionaries into Africa to establish

trade networks and alliances with local

leaders. However, as competition

increased, the European powers became

more aggressive in their tactics. They

used military force to establish

colonies and protectorates, and they

engaged in diplomatic maneuvering and

propaganda campaigns to gain the support

of local populations. One of the most

ruthless tactics the European powers

used was dividing Africa into artificial

borders and creating new ethnic and

linguistic divisions. This created

tensions and conflicts between different

African groups which the Europeans used

to their advantage creating a European

stronghold over the continent of Africa

to increase their profits. The scramble

for Africa came to an end as a result of

several factors including changing

international politics, economic

realities, and rising African

nationalism. One of the key factors that

contributed to the end of the scramble

for Africa was the changing balance of

power in Europe. By the early 20th

century, European powers were

increasingly focused on competition with

each other, particularly in Europe

itself and were less interested in

acquiring new colonies in Africa. This

was due in part to the growing tensions

between European powers that would

eventually lead to the outbreak of World

War I in

1914. Because on June 28th, 1914, a shot

was heard around the world with the

assassination of Archduke France

Ferdinand. France Ferdinand was the heir

to the throne of Austria Hungary and his

assassination by a Serbian nationalist

named Gabrielo Princip sparked a

diplomatic crisis that quickly escalated

into a global conflict. In the aftermath

of the assassination, AustriaHungary

declared war on Serbia, triggering a

complex web of alliances and treaties

that drew other countries into the

conflict. Germany, an ally of

AustriaHungary, declared war on Russia

and France, while Great Britain, which

had a treaty with Belgium, declared war

on Germany. Within weeks, most of Europe

was embroiled in a brutal and

devastating conflict. In November 1918,

after four years of brutal fighting, the

Allied powers and the central powers

agreed to an armistice, effectively

bringing an end to the war and the

demise of the Ottoman Empire. On

November 11th, the armistice went into

effect and the guns fell silent across

Europe.

World War II. The peace was short-lived

because a man named Adolf Hitler invaded

Poland. Like Alexander the Great, Julius

Caesar, Trejan, Attilla the Hun,

Genghask Khan, Napoleon Bonapart, and

Sullean the Great, Adolf Hitler wanted

to establish an empire for his nation

and his people. Adolf had dreams of

building an empire larger than anything

that was ever created. He wanted to make

the Roman Empire look like nothing.

However, for the sake of the world and

especially those Hitler viewed as

undesirable vermin. In April

1945, Soviet forces began a massive

assault on Berlin. After weeks of

intense fighting, the city fell on May

2nd and German forces surrendered.

Meanwhile, Allied forces were closing in

from the west. And on May 7th, Germany

signed an unconditional surrender,

officially ending the war in Europe. A

few months later, after the bombings of

Nagasaki and Hiroshima, Japan

surrendered as well, leaving the war to

be over.

[Music]

From World War II on, the world has

faced a technological revolution. With

Alan Turing's invention of the computer

during the war, the world became global.

For 50 years, America and the Soviet

Union were at war. despite the fact that

they were on two totally different

continents. In 1969, Neil Armstrong

landed on the moon, saying, "That's one

small step for

man, one giant leap for mankind."

As the years on the world has become

increasingly smaller, computers have

become more affordable. Cell phones

changed the way we communicated with one

another. Let's go back to the story of a

man named Gilgamesh on his quest for

immortality. At the end of the poem,

Gilgamesh realizes life which you look

for, you will never find. For when gods

created man, they let death be his share

and life withheld in their own hands.

The history of human civilizations is an

incomplete book, constantly being

updated. Some things will never change.

However, humans will always die. Empires

will always rise and fall. The masses

will always clamor towards safety.

Transcript

The history of our story began long

ago. At one point in time around 3

billion years ago, we were floating

around as little tiny atoms in the

little petri dish of the world. Fast

forward to around 6 million years ago,

and we see the emergence of the first

hominids, the family of primates that

include humans. 1.9 million years ago,

Homo erectus was the first species to

leave Africa and colonize other parts of

the world. They had larger brains than

their primate

ancestors. Around 400,000 years ago, the

first evidence of the Neanderthalss.

Their bodies were adapted to the cold

environments of Europe and Western Asia.

Their distinctive facial features were

some of the most humanlike ever seen.

Then came us, the only surviving species

of the homogeneous. But how did homo

sapiens rise into a global dominance?

Through the mechanism of

[Music]

civilization. We begin our story in the

fertile lands of Mesopotamia in 4,000

B.CE. Nestled between the great Tigris

and Euphrates rivers and the Sumerian

city of Uric. Instead of relying on

hunting and gathering like our ancestors

of the past, the citizens of Uric were

able to develop a way to harvest cereal

grains like wheat and barley. However,

turning cereal grains into edible foods

took a lot of work. In the beginning,

they had to use an invention called a

handmill which consisted of two stones.

As the grains were crushed between the

two stones, the flour was collected in a

container and stored for future use.

This was the start of something great.

This complex, strenuous process was our

modern world's first example of

agriculture. We no longer depended on

hunting animals or picking berries for

our food. Rather than using human

ingenuity, we can create our own food

source. This allowed Eric to prosper

into a place with over 50,000 residents.

However, this change did have a change

on the human body. The average height of

men drastically shrunk from 5'9 to 5'3.

And for women, they shrunk on average

from 5'3 to 5 ft. Instead of being the

super athletes we were of the past, we

were smaller, less noticeable farmers.

People also became landlocked, changing

the very essence of what it means to be

human. In the early 3000 B.CE. According

to legend, King Gilgamesh began his rule

as a Sumerian king of his region.

However, by the end of 3000 B.CE, the

Acadians ousted the Sumerianss. Sargon

the Great took power and conquered all

of Sumeriia.

While in the Indis Valley in modern-day

Pakistan, a new civilization was

growing. The Indis Valley civilization

3,300 to,300 B.CEE was most notable for

its highly advanced toilet system. The

toilets were built with a seat and a

chute that led to the underground

drainage system. The sewage was then

carried away from the homes through a

network of covered drains, preventing

disease spread. The waste was treated

and disposed outside of city limits,

helping to keep the cities clean and

hygienic. While in Egypt, they were more

consumed with building pyramids than

basic human plumbing. This was because

in ancient Egyptian religion, it was

believed that when a pharaoh was to die

in the physical world, his spirit would

continue to live on in the afterlife in

which they would continue to rule in

perpetuity and where they would be

worshiped by the living. Inside these

pyramids, the pharaoh's body was

carefully mummified, a process believed

to preserve his physical form and help

ensure his spirit's journey to the

afterlife. The pyramid was also filled

with offerings and treasures intended to

provide the pharaoh with the resources

he would need in the afterlife. Every

pharaoh wanted to make sure they were

immortal. They wanted to succeed in the

afterlife. They wanted to be worshiped

forever. That's why it was an utmost

priority for Egyptian pharaohs to build

pyramids for themselves when laid to

rest. It started when Pharaoh Joser 2667

to 2648 B.CE TE built the step pyramid

at Sakara followed by Nefpharu 2613 to

2589 B.CEE who built several pyramids

such as the bent pyramid and the red

pyramid. Then came the pharaoh Kufu 2589

to 2566 B.CE who built the famous Great

Pyramid of Giza in a laborintensive

20-year process, one that the world

still marvels at today. Kufu was then

followed by Pharaoh's Kafre and Menar

who built the slightly smaller second

and third pyramids of Giza

respectively. While over in China in the

year 2100 B.CEE the first Chinese

dynasty was upon us. Like the people of

Mesopotamia, the Chinese were ever

reliant on agriculture, producing rice,

wheat, and barley among other crops.

However, as legend has it, the Yellow

River flooded. These massive floods

would destroy all the crops, leading to

massive famine and suffering. However,

not all was to be lost because Yu, the

great was on his way. Yu was so

distraught by this problem that he would

spend his days traveling up and down the

Yellow River. He found ways to divert

the rivers by building levies and dikes

so that he could regulate the waterways.

Then after 13 years of hard work, the

floods could no longer wreak havoc on

the land. The people were overjoyed and

Yu was hailed as a savior. That was the

start of the first Chinese dynasty, the

Ja dynasty. Though the accuracy of this

tale is questioned by historians, it

does establish an important precedent.

The idea is that power ought to follow

one's merit. An individual who deserves

absolute power shall have absolute

power. This idea would shape the world

for years to come and cause the people

of ancient China to follow him to create

the first ever Chinese

[Music]

dynasty. While back over in Mesopotamia

around 1772 B.CE, E, a Babylonian king

named King Hammurabi created the basis

of the legal system as we know it today.

Hammurabi ordered the creation of a 7-ft

tall, 2- foot wide stone slab. Written

on it was a system of 282 laws that each

citizen of his kingdom was to follow.

Such laws included various laws such as

law one, if a man brings an accusation

against another man charging him with

murder but cannot prove it, the accuser

shall be put to death. Law 196, if a man

destroys the eye of another man, they

shall destroy his eye. Law 197 says, if

he breaks another man's bone, they shall

break it. Law 199. If he destroys the

eye of a man's slave or breaks the bone

of a man's slave, he shall pay 1/ half

his price. However, what King Hammurabi

did was create a society based on laws.

He laid out strict laws, placing people

into certain casts of life and value.

Everyone was worth a different amount

based on what class they were in

society. There was no illusion of

equality in ancient Babylon. Instead, it

was pretty clear the value of a noble's

bone was worth more than a plebeians,

which in turn was worth more than a

slaves, an idea we continue to see

throughout

history. While in modern-day Turkey, a

lesserknown civilization came to power,

the Hittites Empire under the

charismatic rule of the leader Learnis,

1680 to 1650 B.CE. CE. He was a skilled

ruler with a single vision in mind,

uniting the Hittite citystates under a

single rule. The Barnes led his army

from city to city, conquering

neighboring citystates and making

alliances with their leaders. He was a

shrewd diplomat and he used his

diplomatic skills to win over the hearts

and minds of the people. Eventually,

Learnas became the ruler of all the

Hittite citystates and established the

empire. He was a just and fair ruler and

was loved by his people. Under his rule,

the Hittites prospered and their

territory expanded, leaving them right

next to their neighbors in

Egypt. While in modern-day Greece, a

collection of citystates emerged on the

European continent. Mason Greece 1600

B.CE to 1100 B.CE De was dominated by an

elite warrior society and consisted of a

network of palace centered states that

developed rigid hierarchial political,

social, and economic systems. At the

head of this society was the king.

However, unlike a unified civilization,

each city was on its own. A city-state

is a city that with its surrounding

territory forms an independent state.

The development of citystates such as

Troy, Mysini, and Pilus start to grow.

The first remnants of the Greek written

language known as linear B also started

to emerge. The first record of any

Indo-Uropean Greek record we have today.

[Music]

While back in Egypt, they started to

create a social pyramid of another type,

the Egyptian social pyramid. Like the

Great Pyramid of Giza, it is more

prominent at the bottom and tinier at

the top. At the bottom lays the peasants

and the slaves. They were responsible

for doing all the manual labor. They

worked on the lands. They would spend

the day in and day out farming,

producing food for all of Egypt. Then

when the season to farm was over for the

year, they would work on the pharaoh's

massive building projects. Literally

building the

pyramids. Slightly above the slaves came

the artisans. They were the stonemasons,

the plasters, and the sculptors who

created the exuberant art the wealthy

desired and for Egypt is most known for

today. Then came the merchants who spent

their days navigating the Nile, trading

gold, papyrus, and linen to anyone who

could afford it. They were well

respected and able to make a healthy

profit by selling. Then came the

scribes. These masters of the world

would go to specialized scribe schools

just to master the language of ancient

Egyptian hieroglyphics. In practical

use, these scribes took account of the

stores of food, various tax documents,

and even the daily lives of the pharaoh.

After the scribes came the soldiers, the

soldiers were tasked with protecting the

Egyptian Empire. They dedicated their

lives to defend or make preemptive

strikes against their enemy. Generally,

they were wellfed. Then, near the top

came the bureaucrats. These highranking

government officials did essential tasks

at the top of society like the vazers

who ran the logistical tasks necessary

to run a civilization. The priests

oversaw taking care of the temples to

ensure the gods were well cared for. The

nobles oversaw specific regions of the

empire and kept order in said regions.

At the top, the purpose of everyone

below was the pharaoh, the king and the

mediator between the gods and the world

of men. The pharaohs will be known to be

supreme and all must succumb to it. When

the pharaoh dies, he will be buried in a

pyramid in which he will help eternally

rule over the Egyptian Empire. Egyptian

society was created to serve the

pharaoh. Taxes were taken from the

farmers for the pharaoh and artisans

made unique crafts for it. The merchants

ensured the pharaoh was well supplied

with the needed goods. The scribes would

follow the pharaoh and record his

thoughts. The soldiers made sure his

empire was protected. The bureaucrats

did the jobs the pharaoh couldn't do

while the pharaoh sat at the top and

communicated with the gods. Pharaoh

Ramsy's II 1279 to 1213 B.CE. CE

accomplished many extraordinary things

by living in this social system. He

orchestrated the construction of the

temple of Abu Symbol, the Ramisum and

the temple of Cararnac. He was also able

to grow the Egyptian Empire and

reconquer lands lost by other pharaohs

except for the land claimed by the

Hidife Empire.

[Music]

The Hittite king of the time, Matali II,

1295 to 1272 B.CEE, was notorious for

ordering his troops to attack his

Egyptian neighbors. Following the

example of Learnis, Matali wanted to

unify the world under Hittite rule.

However, Ramsy's had enough. Other

pharaohs in the past have tried to stop

the Hittites, but he knew if his empire

was to ever succeed, he needed to attack

back. His target is the city of Kadesh.

Ramsy's rode in on his chariot with four

divisions of 20,000 men ready to

dominate and kill Matali. However, the

Hittites already knew of the incoming

Egyptian invasion through espionage.

They fortified their city with 40,000 of

his own men. A war was about to

commence. Ramsy's decided to split up

his divisions to force Matali out, but

yet Matali never did. A gruesome

mistake. Splitting up his forces left

him exposed, unable to get an advantage,

allowing Matali and the people of Kadesh

a chance for victory. Historians believe

that all they did was come out from the

fortification of Kadesh and trap Ramsy's

II's forces in his army by the river.

But yet, for some unknown reason, they

never did, leaving the Battle of Kadesh

to end in a draw. After the battle

though, both sides decided it would be

best to stop attacking each other, that

they should live in peace and unity in

this world. Then after the death of

Matali, the new king Harusili III took

the throne of the Hittite Empire.

Through the means of messengers in the

year 1258 B.CEE, both Ramses and

Harusili signed the first peace treaty

to ever exist. Reading in part, Ramsy's

the great king, the king of the country

of Egypt, shall never attack the country

of Hadti to take possession of a part of

this country. and Haruseli the great

king of the country of Hadi shall never

attack the country of Egypt to take

possession of a part of that country.

Then a period of friendship occurred

between these two once waring nations.

The Hittites were skilled in metal work

and taught the Egyptians to make

superior weapons and tools. At the same

time, the Egyptians, master of

agriculture, shared their knowledge with

the Hittites. Trade for the benefit of

both civilizations. Both civilizations

prospered because of this. Peace can

lead to prosperity. The agreement was

kept in place until around 1,200 B.CE de

because that's when the Hittite Empire

fell because of the constant attacks

they faced from the sea people leaving

the Hittite Empire to be lost in the

state of

[Music]

history. While on a continent far away,

the first civilization in the Americas

was taking foot in modern-day Mexico.

Theme civilization 1200 B.CE to 400 B.CE

CE is often considered the mother

civilization of Native American

civilizations. However, sadly though,

not much is known about them, mainly due

to their writing in a hieroglyph

historians still can't decipher. One of

the few remains we have are these 17

colossal stone heads. In Mesoamerican

culture, there is this belief that the

head alone could contain an individual's

emotion, experience, and soul. We may

not know their leaders names like of

other civilizations like Ramsy's and

Hammurabi. When looking through the eyes

of a stone head, we can still feel their

presence. And in some ways, they remain

immortal, enshrined in history. For one

day, we may learn who they

[Music]

are. While in the east, the Zhao dynasty

1046 to 256 B.CE CE in China was taking

its stride. The Zhao dynasty gained

power because of the failures of the

less critical Shang dynasty. They

believed in the idea of a mandate from

heaven. This resulted in four principles

in the Chinese dynastical structure that

would be repeated repeatedly. One,

heaven grants the emperor the right to

rule. Two, since there is only one

heaven, there can only be one emperor at

any given time. Three, the emperor's

virtue determines his right to rule. And

four, no one dynasty has a permanent

right to rule. A ruler in dynasty could

lose the mandate from heaven. And the

heavens weren't always on the side of

the rulers. Over time, it will fade into

another dynasty. The heavens would send

signs of droughts, famines, floods, and

earthquakes across the land, signaling

they'd lost the blessing from above.

This is how the Shen dynasty fell and

the Zhao dynasty grew to prominence. The

Zhao dynasty brought another style of

government and the creation of

feudalism. The system was

straightforward leading to another

social pyramid. At the bottom lay the

peasants who were tied to the land and

whose job was to produce crops for the

empire. Then came the soldiers whose job

was to protect the lands from foreign

invaders. Then the lords who owned the

land and taxed the peasants a portion of

their crops who in turn the lord gave

some of their crops to the king. The

person in charge of the whole empire,

the king would then receive more crops

and become very wealthy. All profits go

to the king and all work goes to the

masses. Why would anyone just settle for

a life of farming day in and day out?

There are two reasons for this

phenomenon. The first reason was due to

necessity. It took many more people to

feed an empire and a family back then.

And the second reason being philosophy

towards the end of the Zhao dynasty, the

beginning of Eastern philosophy was

created. Confucious created a philosophy

system justly named Confucianism which

is focused on the importance of respect,

loyalty and responsibility in all

relationships in life. A central concept

of Confucianism is called Lee which can

be translated as rituals, customs or

manners. Lee refers to the formal and

informal social conventions that guide

societal behavior. It is seen as

maintaining order and harmony in social

relationships. While LaZee created

another philosophy called Towoism. The

word toao means the way or the path. And

toism teaches that individuals should

seek to align themselves with the

natural flow of the universe rather than

fighting against it. Live your life as

peacefully with yourself as possible and

don't worry about external things

outside your control. Just focus on your

farming. One of the most famous

contemporaries from Taoism is the idea

of yin and yang representing

complimentary and interdependent forces

in nature such as light and dark, hot

and cold or masculine and feminine.

Towoism teaches that by balancing these

opposing forces, individuals can achieve

harmony and fulfillment. Confucianism

and Taoism made life bearable for

ancient Chinese farmers.

[Music]

But as time progressed, the citystates

that occupied ancient Greece grew.

Around 800 B.CEE, the Greek city started

to realize that the land they occupied

was practically infertile. So to produce

an essential staple of grain, they had

to import it. Hence why the Greek states

had to colonize the world around them.

The citystate mletus at its height had

over 90 colonies throughout Europe

producing food for the Greeks. At its

height, the Greek had set up colonies

from modern-day Marseilles in France to

Rostavandon in

[Music]

Russia. One of these new emerging city

states was Rome. As legend has it,

Romulus and Ramis were twin brothers

abandoned by their parents and placed

into the river Tibet. As the basket

floated across the river, a female wolf

discovered the two orphans and nursed

them back to health. When Romulus and

Ramos became adults, they decided to

find a city where the wolf rescued them.

However, this created turmoil as both

brothers wanted the site to be named

after themselves. As Romulus and Ramos

fought relentlessly, eventually Romulus

came up with the final blow and killed

Ramos, creating Rome in 753 BC.

[Music]

While the Greek citystates might have

been colonizing, Cyrus the Great was

about to take over an empire. At the

time, the Persians were subjugated to

the rule of the Mes Empire. According to

legend, after his grandson Cyrus was

born, King Aages of Mes had a vivid

dream that his little grandson would one

day stage a revolt against him. King

Astages knew what to do and ordered his

chief adviser to kill the baby. But the

chief adviser gave the baby off to a

shepherd to be raised instead. However,

troubles weren't over for Cyrus. When he

was 10, King Aages found Cyrus. King

Aages wanted to kill him because the

dream was very clear. This man will

revolt against you. Yet against his

better senses, Cyrus was allowed to

live. King Astage's biggest mistake.

When Cyrus was a man, he gathered his

army and revolted against his maternal

grandfather, the two. But as prophecy

had it, Aiges surrendered in 550 B.CE.

However, Cyrus wasn't done conquering.

He conquered Babylon and became the

supreme ruler of Mesopotamia and even

the Indis Valley civilization. The world

was in Cyrus's hand. Cyrus then took

over the Greek colony of Ionia in Asia

Minor, leading a great Persian Empire.

And then he died, leaving it all in the

air for the next great Persian king,

Darius the

[Music]

Great. While back in Greece, various

citystates started to gain power, but

two were at the forefront, Sparta and

Athens. Sparta was a military

powerhouse. The famous Spartans believed

everything should focus on physical

strength and war. When a new young

Spartan was born, it would be

slaughtered if it didn't look healthy.

Boys were taken from their families at a

young age and were trained to become

soldiers. The brutal training included

physical conditioning, weapons training,

and harsh living conditions. The entire

life of a Spartan was to win a war.

Their society reflected with three main

groups. The ruling class consisted of

aristocrats who held political power.

The free non-citizens who were not

allowed to participate in government but

were still expected to serve in the

military and the hellets, a group of

enslaved people that provided labor for

the Spartan state. Life in Sparta was

harsh, brutal, and militaristic.

While their neighbors up north were

experimenting with this idea of

democracy, Athenian democracy was a

highly complicated mess. There were two

branches, the Council of 500 and the

Assembly. The Council of 500 was

selected randomly by a process known as

sort. Athens itself was made up of 10

different tribes. Each tribe was

responsible for providing 50 citizens to

serve for one year in the Council of 500

via random selection. Each eligible

citizen would be given a personalized

token. Those tokens were inserted into a

particular machine called a clarition.

This long lost technology included tubes

and balls which somehow selected 50

residents of each tribe to join the

illustrious Council of 500. While in the

assembly, there was a system in place

that said that every single citizen had

a vote. Of course, to be a citizen, you

had to be a male and not a slave. and

either born in Athens or to Athenian

parents. The Council of 500 would create

the agenda for the main assembly to vote

on because over 30,000 people could have

a vote at any given time. It was total

chaos. So to quell this, the council

would nominate nine presidents the

morning of the meeting, and it was their

job to ensure all the rules and

procedures were being followed. Since

they were appointed right before the

assembly met, they were almost

impossible to bribe. Somehow the

assembly would loudly vote on whether a

bill would pass. They would vote on

matters like appointing generals,

various laws, and other government

bureaucracy. However, not everyone liked

this Athenian democracy. The famous

Greek philosopher Plato thought the idea

was barbaric. In book six of the seminal

book, The Republic, Plato writes, "The

true navigator must study the seasons of

the year, the sky, the stars, the winds,

and all the other subjects appropriate

to his profession if he is really fit to

control the ship. Think that it's quite

impossible to acquire the professional

skill needed for such control, and that

there's no such thing as the art of

navigation. How much could a randomly

selected member of the Council of 500

really know? How much could he fully

contribute to society? Should we allow a

random member of society to have any

power? Instead, Plato would advocate for

the idea of a philosopher king, a man

who studies wisdom, logic, and

reasoning, a man who dedicates his life

to understanding how to be just, a man

who will become the navigator of wisdom.

Plato would rather say, "The society we

have described can never grow into a

reality or see the light of day, and

there will be no end to the troubles of

the states." Or, indeed, my dear Glalin,

of humanity itself, till philosophers

become rulers in this world, or till

those we now call kings and rulers

really and truly become philosophers,

and political power and philosophy thus

come into the same hands. There's just

one issue with Plato's quote. Every

leader thinks they're a philosopher

king. Everyone thinks their thoughts are

the best. Everyone thinks their ideas

are the wisest. From Yu the Great in

China to Labarnis of the Hittite Empire

to Sedara Gaimma of the Kingdom of

Magada in

India. While not so far away in the

Indian kingdom of Magada, a spoiled

prince named Sedarta Gaimma 500 B.CEE

lived in luxury inside a palace. Inside

this palace, Sedarta could have anything

he wanted. All the jewels, all the

wealth, all the finest goods thrust upon

him. His world inside of the palace was

a utopia on earth. There was no want,

need, or desire, and it was perfect

until he went outside his palace

compound, the only place he ever knew.

As he took his first steps outside of

his palace, what he saw struck a chord.

He saw an old man dying right on the

street in front. He realized that the

human experience wasn't something that

was perfect and sublime. Instead, it was

death. As Gilgamesh realized many years

ago, this was an inevitable part of the

human experience. Seda left his life of

luxury behind and began a quest for

knowledge and enlightenment. He studied

with spiritual teachers and meditated

for many years, searching for answers to

life's big questions. Finally, after 6

years of seeking, he sat down under a

fig tree and meditated until he achieved

enlightenment. Enlightenment is a state

of inner peace in which one has

transcended the limitations of the ego

and is in touch with a universal

consciousness or divine essence. It

isn't a fixed and permanent thing but

rather an ongoing process of growth and

development. But under that fig tree,

Sedarta became known as the Buddha or

the awakened one. He would spend the

rest of his life traveling the

countryside, becoming close to the

enlightenment. Darius was determined to

follow in his father's footsteps and

take over the world. After finalizing

their rule over the citystate of Ionia,

the Persians were on a quest to take

over Greece. Darius and his 20,000 men

came to the city of Marathon in the year

490 B.CE. a city 26.2 mi away from

Athens. The Athenians were vastly

outnumbered with only 10,000 men. As the

Persians were trying to regroup, the

powerful Greek hoplights crushed the

weaker Persian foot soldiers by routing

the wings before turning towards the

center of the Persian line. The remnants

of the Persian army fled to their ships

and left the battle. Early historians

believe the battlefield littered 6,400

Persian bodies while the Athenians lost

only 192. So the Persians retreated and

an Athenian messenger named Phipides ran

the 26.2 mi from Marathon to

Athens, exclaiming with joy how the

Athenians just beat the mighty Persian

Empire. All of Athens went crazy with

this fantastic news, hence leading the

Phipides historic trek to be sketched

into history as the world's first

marathon. However, the Persians weren't

done. Even with Darius I dying of

mysterious circumstances, his son,

Exeres I took over the crown and wanted

to complete his grandfather's legacy. In

480 B.CE. Xerxes I wanted revenge, so he

brought his enormous invasion force of

over

100,000 soldiers and was dead set on

conquering Greece. Then at a narrow pass

at Thermopoly, the Spartan king Leonitis

had his force of 7,000 Spartans maintain

the defense. Leonitis knew of his

disadvantage and developed a bold and

daring plan to defeat the Persians.

Rather than waiting for the Persians to

attack, Leonitis ordered his soldiers to

make a surprise attack on the Persian

camp, catching the Persians offguard and

disrupting their formation. Despite

their success, the Greek army was

ultimately overwhelmed by the Persians

who attacked from all sides and

eventually broke through the Greek

defenses. Leonitis and his soldiers

fought with courage and determination.

Still, they were ultimately defeated.

Then came the battle of Salamis where

the Greeks could change the tilt of the

war in a naval battle between the 500

Persian tri and 300 Greek tri. It didn't

look good for the Greeks. Still, the

great Athenian general, the Mysticles,

employed his plan to move the Persian

fleet into the narrow straits of Salamis

and hit the enemy fleet so hard that it

had nowhere to retreat. After a massive

sea battle, the Mysticles won Greece the

victory and changed the face of the war.

The Persians still had their goal.

Conquer the Greek citystates. Xer had

returned to Persia, leaving Persian

General Mardonius in charge of the

Persian force for most of the

significant battle yet. After diplomatic

talks ceased, Persia knew they had to

attack. As the Persians sent their

troops to Platea, the Greeks knew they

had to work together. With 30 various

Greek citystates working together, they

were able to field a massive

110,000 hoplight army with the primary

purpose of defeating Persia. Though that

was nothing compared to the estimated

150,000man army of Persia. The battle

was fierce and intense with both sides

fighting with ferocity and

determination. The Greek hoplights

continued to be effective against the

Persian cavalry and archers. The Greeks

also strategically used the terrain,

fighting on a slope that helped offset

the Persian numerical advantage. In the

end, the Greeks defeated the Persian

forces and secured a decisive victory.

The Persians suffered heavy losses and

Mardonius was killed in the fighting.

The battle of Platea marked the end of

the Greco Persian wars and the Persian

threat to Greece.

After the Persian War, life in ancient

Greece was spectacular. A golden age of

culture was upon us. With no longer

having to face the threat of war, Athens

was able to create architectural wonders

such as the Parthonon. The Parthonon

sits upon the Athenian Acropolis, a

prominent hill overlooking the city of

Athens to show its wealth and culture.

No matter where you'll go in Athens, you

can still see the great Parthonon even

today. Then came the theater. Around

this time, the state would sponsor the

most significant poets to create stories

in the Athenian festival called the city

Dionia. A festival designed to worship

the Greek god of theater and fertility,

Dionis, creating playwrights such as

Sophocles, Escilis, and Aristophanes.

[Music]

States were hungry for power. Athens was

recruiting citystates into their Dillian

alliance while Sparta was recruiting

citystates into their Pelpeneisian

alliance. Both Sparta and Athens felt

like they should control the city of

Corkia. Hence why in 434 B.CE war was

upon the Greek peninsula resulting in

naval battles such as the battle of

Ciblo and the battle of Pyos. By 421

B.CEE a short peace was negotiated.

However, this peace would not last and

Athens had their eyes on Sicily.

Initially, the expedition was going

well. The Athenians established

alliances with several Sicilian cities

and won several minor skirmishes against

the Sicilian forces. But soon Alabiades,

one of the greatest naval generals in

history, was recalled to Athens to face

charges of sacriage. The Athenian fleet

was left without his

leadership. In his absence, the

expedition began to unravel. The

Athenians could not take the city of

Syracuse, which had fortified its

defenses and was well prepared for a

siege. The Sicilians were aided by

reinforcements from Sparta, which saw an

opportunity to strike a crippling blow

against its arch rival, Athens. The

Athenians suffered from a lack of

supplies and were plagued by disease. At

the same time, the Syracus launched a

series of surprise attacks and ambushes.

Finally, after months of grueling

fighting, the Athenian fleet was

destroyed in a decisive battle.

Thousands of Athenians were killed and

many more were captured and enslaved. A

decade after that, Athens fell to the

Spartans. The age of legendary Greece

was now over. Both Athens and Sparta

were significantly weaker, never to

regain the same power they once had,

leaving the world ready for a

philosopher king to conquer it all.

Then in the east, the mandate of heaven

was up. The Zhao dynasty, after a long

800year rule, it was deemed by the

heavens that their empire was up, which

led to a period known as the waring

states 474 to 221 B.CE. This resulted in

Hanfi who created a new philosophy

called legalism. Followers of legalism

believed that people were inherently

selfish and would only act in their own

self-interest and that the only way to

keep them in line was through a system

of rewards and punishments that was

clear and consistently enforced. This

resulted in Fezy claiming that the best

way to achieve social order was by

establishing a powerful ruler

responsible for enforcing the law and

punishing wrongdoers. He also believed

the ruler should have complete control

over the military, the economy, and

society. While in the heart of the Waka

region of Mexico, the Zapotch

civilization started to flourish. The

capital city of Monte Alban was being

built on a mountaintop overlooking the

entire Waka Valley. Perched on the

mountaintop overlooking the valley of

Waka, the city was home to a ruling

elite who oversaw a hierarchal social

structure that included middleclass

artisans and lowerass farmers. The

people of the Zapotch civilization were

known for their innovative agricultural

practices, including the cultivation of

maze and other crops, which sustained

their communities in times of drought

and other environmental pressures. They

also developed an early writing system

which used a combination of symbols and

glyphs to represent words and ideas.

They developed an advanced calendar

system based on 260day and

3605day solar cycles.

In Greece during the year 356 B.CEE in

the city of Pella in the kingdom of

Macedon, the greatest commander in

history was born. Alexander the Great

grew up knowing he would be a leader and

was the son of King Philip II and Queen

Olympia. But the teacher was much more

impressive. Since he was a kid,

Alexander was tutored by Aristotle.

Aristotle is the man who is known as the

father of logic. He created the fields

of biology and taxonomy by introducing a

way to think called the scientific

method. A method that is still taught in

schools to this day. He also wrote

extensively about philosophy, ethics,

and art, changing the face of the world

as we know it today. This is the man who

was in charge of teaching Alexander the

Great. Alexander was 20 when his father

was assassinated. But his excellent

education allowed him to take over the

rest of the world. After his father died

in 336 B.CE, Alexander was hellbent on

keeping his family's power. So when the

Greek city of Thieves decided to revolt,

Alexander and his army marched 240 m in

14 days. When thieves refused to

surrender, he raised the entire city to

the ground and 6,000 were killed and the

rest were sold into slavery. The rest of

the Greek citystates recoiled in fear,

allowing Alexander to do as he pleased,

leaving for his new target to be Persia

and the new Persian king, Darius III. In

333 BC, Alexander faced the Persian army

at the Battle of Isus. This significant

engagement saw the Persian king Darius

III defeated and forced to flee.

Alexander then captured several key

cities, including the vital port of Ty,

which had resisted his initial siege. In

331 BC, Alexander faced Darius III again

at the Battle of Gagamela near the

Tigress River in modern-day Iraq.

Despite being outnumbered, Alexander won

a decisive victory using superior

tactics and mobility. The Persian army

was shattered and Darius III fled once

again. Alexander then proceeded to

capture the Persian capital of Babylon

and took control of much of Mesopotamia.

He continued his campaign eastward,

winning battles in what is now

modern-day Iran and Afghanistan. In 330

BC, he captured the Persian capital of

Procepils, a city of great wealth and

cultural significance. But Alexander

wasn't done. He wanted to expand

eastward, eventually crossing the Hindu

Kush mountains into India. However, his

troops grew tired of the endless

fighting and refused to go any further,

and Alexander was forced to turn back.

However, after Alexander failed in the

Indian subcontinent, a powerhouse

emerged in India called the Morian

Empire. At its height, it spanned over

much of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and

Afghanistan. However, this conquering

came at much of a cost for its leader,

Ashoka the Great. In 261 BC, after the

death of his parents, Ashoka decided

that his empire needed to expand. in his

sights, the kingdom of Kolinga. The war

was bloody. The war was fierce. Over a

100,000 people died. Ashoka couldn't

sleep with himself. He didn't know how

to deal with his actions that resulted

in so much death. So, he turned to the

teaching of the Buddha. Under Ashoka's

rule, the Morian Empire became known for

supporting Buddhist teachings and

promoting nonviolence. Ashoka issued a

series of edicts inscribed on rocks and

pillars throughout the empire that

promoted principles such as kindness,

respect for all religions, and the

abolition of slavery. Certain traits

were not shared in the West by

Alexander. In the West, it was deemed

honorable to die in combat, and a hero's

death would be remembered forever. A

farmer will die in anonymity. Alexander

died a few years later in Babylon at the

age of 32. Throughout his expedition,

Alexander was spreading Greek ideas

founded by his once wise teacher,

bringing the rise of Greek ideals across

the land, starting the seeds of the

western cultures we see today. Once

Alexander died, his empire just could

not sustain itself. His generals feuded

as to who should be the leader of this

great empire. Everyone wanted power yet

in fighting left to waste in oblivion.

Eventually in 323 BC after senseless

wars the Greek generals divided the

world into three major empires. The

Tomies in Egypt, the Seucids in the east

and the Antigonids in Greece.

Tomlamese, one of Alexander's generals,

led Egypt into a period of prosperity.

Inspiration by his former leader, Tomies

built the Library of Alexandria, a hub

for an intellectual scholarship.

Intellectuals from all over will come to

the library to exchange ideas and

thoughts throughout the world, leaving

us to have great philosophers like Plato

and Aristotle to be the backbone of our

culture. While the general Seucid was

given the keys to the city of Babylon.

Babylon at this time was a cultural hub

melting Greek, Persian, Indian and

Central Asian cultures. Seucid though

preferred Greek ideas and Greek

language. The Seucid Empire was at its

height during the reign of King

Antiochus III 223 BC to 187 BC. Under

King Antiochus III, the Seucids

encompassed a vast territory from

modern-day Turkey to modern-day

Pakistan, one of the largest empires on

record until the rise of the

Romans. While the Antigonids did not

have nearly as much success by the time

Antiggonids I took power, the Greeks

were just a shell of what they once

were. The age of the Greeks was behind

us. The Dolomies, the Seucids, and the

Antigonids went astray from the Roman

Empire. However, for Rome to rise, it

had to face a powerful foe, Carthage.

Both Rome and Carthage had a desire for

the same citystate, Msina, on the island

of Sicily. This would give either

civilization a foothold to grab power in

the Mediterranean. The first Punic war

was upon us and after 20 years of

fighting in the year 241 B.CEE and the

defeat of Carthage, the Treaty of

Lutatius was signed. The peace though

was short-lived. In 218 B.CE. the second

Punic Wars began when the Carthagian

general Hannibal invaded Italy with his

army, including elephants to conquer

Rome. Hannibal won several early battles

including the battle of Ka in 216 B.CE.

Still he was ultimately defeated by the

Roman general Cypio Aricanis at the

battle of Zama in 202 B.CEE. The war

resulted in the complete defeat of

Carthage which was forced to seed its

territories to Rome and the end of the

Carthaginian Empire. There was no doubt

in the world anymore that it was time

for the Romans to take charge in the

west. While in the east, after the end

of the waring states period, Chin Xi

Huang and the Chin dynasty were an

absolute power. 221 B.CE to 206 B.CE.

Chin was determined to turn diverse

China into a unified Chinese empire. He

divided the lands into 36 command areas

supervised by a governor, military

commander, and imperial inspector. It

was expected that you followed the will

of Chin or else you would face harsh

penalties. The basic ideas of legalism

in action, strong government, harsh

laws, and inheriting knowing that humans

were necessarily selfish. However, their

mandate from heaven ran quite quickly.

After Chinshi Huangs death, China was in

turmoil with another dynasty on

foot. Lu Bang, leader from 206 to 195

B.CE. After leading a revolt against the

Chin, was declared emperor of the new

Han dynasty. Instead of following the

strict legalistic mindset of the Chin,

Lu decided to set his empire as a

Confucianist paradise. The ideals of

moderation, virtue, and pity as set

through Confucianism were marched

throughout the empire, weaving the

cocoon of a powerful dynasty. During the

Han dynasty, the production of silk was

ever increasing, and the idea of profits

was in the minds of all. So, in 138

B.CE, Emperor Han Wu sent an imperial

convoy to make contact with cultures of

Central Asia and the Mediterranean. Then

after the routes were established,

Chinese merchants and traders would

bring their silk across the Silk Road to

the Middle East and eventually Europe

where it would be sold at high profits.

Though in the beginning, the route was

relatively short. Because in 97 BC,

Ambassador Coning was sent to Rome with

gifts of silk for their empire. However,

Khan only got as far as Mesopotamia,

because he was told by the Parththeians,

the dominant empire in Iran at the time,

that the journey would take years.

Little did Khan know that he was

misinformed, that the journey would have

been relatively shorter, but the

Parththeians wanted to keep their spot

as the middlemen. They did not want

China and Rome to have contact with one

another, creating a system of three

empires smooshed right up against each

other. Rome in the west, Parththeians in

the center and China in the

east. Then in 86 B.CEE, Greece, already

being weakened by the conquest of

Alexander the Great, was now the target

of the Roman Empire. General Lucius

Cornelius Sola led an army of legions to

the forefront of Athens. He besieged

Athens for several months, brutally

torturing the citizens within.

Eventually, when Athens fell, he ordered

his soldiers to loot and pillage the

city, destroying many important cultural

treasures. This takeover cemented Rome

as a superpower. Athens no longer had

the power, but rather it was in

Rome. While in 63 B.CE, CE, General

Pompei was tasked with capturing

Jerusalem and the region of Galilee. The

Romans quickly captured the cities,

forcing Galilee to be placed under Roman

rule, including a small village called

Nazareth. The Romans desire to expand

didn't end in Galilee. Though in 58

B.CE, De Julius Caesar was appointed

governor of the Roman provide of

Cicipolene Gaul, northern Italy with the

express assignment of conquering the

rest of the Gauls. At the time, the

Gauls were a group of Celtic peoples who

lived in that area that is now France,

Belgium, and parts of Switzerland,

Germany, and Italy. However, it was

Caesar's job to take over these Celtic

tribes. While the Gauls who were

insistent on their independence, all had

to work together under the leadership of

Versen Jederics in a lastditch attempt

to stop the Romans. As Caesar brought

his troops to Alleia in 52 BC, war was

upon us. Alicia was surrounded by a

double wall and a ditch with additional

fortifications on the town's hills.

Versen Jeder had gathered a large force

of GIC warriors inside the town. In

contrast, Caesar had assembled a sizable

Roman army outside the walls. Caesar

realized that a direct assault on the

town would be complex. So, he surrounded

the GIC forces and starve them into

submission. He ordered the construction

of a series of fortifications around

Alicia, including a circumalation wall

that encircled the town and a second

wall and ditch that faced outward to

defend against any attempts to break

out. Over several weeks, Caesar's forces

engaged in a grueling siege of Allesia.

With both sides suffering heavy losses,

the GIC warriors inside the town made

several attempts to break out, but they

were repelled by the Roman forces. The

tide of the battle turned in favor of

the Romans when a second GIC army led by

Versened's ally Commus attempted to

relieve the siege. Caesar sent a

detachment of his forces to intercept

the GIC reinforcements. After a fierce

battle, the Roman soldiers emerged

victorious. With his forces surrounded

and facing starvation, Versenetics was

forced to surrender. He emerged from

Allegia and offered himself as a

prisoner to Caesar, effectively ending

the GIC resistance to Roman rule.

Throughout the next 2 years, Caesar

crossed the GIC Empire, conquering and

implementing it into Rome. The Gauls

were implemented into Rome, even gaining

citizenship within the

empire. However, the Senate was not

happy with Caesar. Even though he had

great success against the Gauls, the

Roman Senate wanted him to stop. They

did not like the popularity Caesar was

gaining, nor the power he was

controlling. So the Roman Senate called

upon Caesar to resign his command and

disband his army or risk being declared

an enemy of the state. This led Caesar

to an essential choice to make. Will he

either follow the will of the Roman

Senate or ignore them and start a bloody

civil war? Roman law at the time

prohibited any general from crossing the

Rubicon River and entering mainland

Italy with a standing army without the

expressed permission of the Roman

Senate. To do so would be treason, and

this tiny stream would reveal Caesar's

intentions and mark the point of no

return. Civil war was imminent as Caesar

and his army marched over the Rubicon.

Battles in Corfinium and Farales showed

the Senate that Caesar was a worthy foe.

So the Roman Senate appointed his

son-in-law Nais Pompi to lead the Roman

forces against his father-in-law. Both

parties knew the importance of Spain due

to it providing a link between Italy and

the rest of Europe. The two armies

clashed near the town of Lea in

northeastern Spain. Caesar's army was

significantly outnumbered, but he could

use his superior military tactics and

training to gain the upper hand in the

battle. After several days of intense

fighting, Caesar emerged victorious,

forcing Pompy's forces to retreat,

declaring Caesar as the new leader of

Rome. When Caesar made it back to Rome,

the crowds were chanting, "Hail Caesar!

Hail Caesar!" The people then decided

that he would be the dictator of Rome

for life. Caesar immediately set to work

implementing a series of reforms and

policies aimed at improving ordinary

Romans lives and strengthening the

central government's power. He ordered

the construction of new infrastructure

such as roads, bridges, and aqueducts

which helped to connect different parts

of the city and improve trade and

commerce. Caesar also enacted a series

of political and social reforms,

including granting citizenship to many

people living in the Roman Empire and

creating new laws and customs that were

based on Roman practices. He encouraged

the spread of the Latin language and

culture throughout the city and

established the Julian calendar, which

is the basis of the calendar we use

today. However, Caesar's reign was

short-lived because 2 years later in 44

BC, he was stabbed to death by two loyal

senators, Casius and Brutus. The

assassination of Caesar led the Roman

world into disarray. The world was

filled with factions vying for

government control without a strong

leader.

Octaven Caesar's son, who was 18 then,

came to Rome to claim his inheritance

and assert his place in the political

landscape. He quickly aligned himself

with Caesar's loyal lieutenant, Mark

Anthony. Together, they defeated

Caesar's assassins at the Battle of

Philippi in 42 B.CE. However, tensions

soon arose between Octavian and Anthony

as both men vied for control of the

Roman Empire. In 31 B.CE, de their

forces clashed in the naval battle of

Actium which resulted in Octaven

emerging as the clear victor. Anthony

fled to Egypt with his lover Cleopatra

and the two committed suicide the

following year. With Antony's defeat,

Octavian emerged as the undisputed ruler

of Rome. In 27 B.CEE, he was appointed

Augustus and became the first Roman

emperor.

During Augustus's reign, a man who would

change the world was born in the Roman

occupied city of Bethlehem, Jesus

Christ. The Gospel of Luke says, "In

those days, a decree went out from

Caesar Augustus that all the world

should be registered. This was the first

registration when Corinius was governor

of Syria, and all went to be registered,

each to his own town." Luke 2 1-3. This

census was an essential factor in Roman

society because it established the

population counts in these various

communities making it possible to tax

these various citizens. So the highly

pregnant Mary and her betrothed husband

Joseph had to travel 90 miles on foot

from Nazareth to Bethlehem to complete

this legally required Roman census. When

they arrived in Bethlehem, many other

descendants of the King of David or

members of the Jewish faith were also

going to Bethlehem for the census. They

found out that there was no room for

them in the inn. So, they were forced to

take shelter in a stable where Mary gave

birth to Jesus. Jesus was later named

King of the Jews. After Jesus's birthday

and the completion of the census, Mary

and Joseph returned to Nazareth with

their extraordinary son. As the years of

Jesus went on, stories about him grew.

More and more followers began to worship

Jesus as their Messiah. They claimed

that he can catch an endless amount of

fish. They claimed that he can cure the

blind. And they claimed that he was the

son of God. So these followers,

specifically his disciples, started to

write down his entire life journey. Four

of his closest disciples, Matthew, Mark,

Luke, and John, wrote down the main

chunks of the book in these parts called

Gospels. Each of these gospels covered

almost all of the same events, the

narrative life of Jesus Christ. This

narrative testimony of a child born in a

stable changed the world

forever. Even though many loved Jesus,

some viewed him as a threat. Emperor

Tiberius succeeded Augustus and reigned

from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was

notorious for his delators, a network of

informants rewarded for spying and

reporting on suspected traitors and

criminals. Criminals reported on by the

Delators had to face a treason trial,

often resulting in executions or forced

suicides. His prefect of Judea at the

time, Pontius Pilate, was no stranger to

the harsh punishment of traitors. As

Jesus was influencing more and more

people, he became more of a political

threat. So, following the guidelines of

Emperor Tiberius, Pilate was given no

practical political choice other than to

execute Jesus on the cross. Roman law

was evident. Then, one must follow the

emperor's will or else they will perish.

As Jesus was crucified on the cross, a

new religion was born.

Christianity. In the beginning,

Christianity was just a small sect of

Judaism. Nevertheless, its growth would

[Music]

unparalleled. Paul of Taurus would take

the word of his chosen Lord across the

known world. From Greece to Turkey to

Syria, the word of Jesus Christ spread.

His missionary tales are now documented

in the New Testament as the book of

Acts. The more Paul went to different

places, the more followers he gained. On

the same token, it created more enemies.

The divide between monotheism and

polytheism was on the rise. It was

beginning to get a lot tougher for

Romans to accept a religious population

that didn't believe in gods like Mars

and Jupiter. So when the great fire of

Rome occurred in July of 64 AD, Emperor

Nero quickly blamed it on the

Christians. The great fire was an event

that destroyed 23 of the city of Rome.

So in order to pay for these massive

repairs, Nero instituted heavy tributes

across the empire. to meet at least a

proportion of the costs. Nurero also

started to print more Roman currency,

creating an inflationary effect for the

first time in the empire's history.

However, the individuals who lived under

Roman rule, which wasn't in Rome proper,

were upset by this new policy. So, in

the holy city of Jerusalem in 66 AD, a

revolt was on. At first, the first

Jewish revolt succeeded and the Jewish

forces quickly expelled the unprepared

Roman army. Then the rebels gained some

traction in the neighboring villages in

Galilee. In response, the Roman Emperor

Nero sent the general Vespasian to meet

the Jewish forces. An endeavor that

pushed most rebels into Jerusalem proper

by the time Vespasian was proclaimed

emperor in 69 CE. Then around Passover

in 70 AD, Vespasian and his forces

sieged the city, depleting it of food

and water within the walls of Jerusalem.

The Jews started to quarrel within,

leaving them more vulnerable to attack.

By August, the Romans breached the

defenses, killed much of the population,

and destroyed many of their holy sites.

With the Jews decimated, the strength of

polytheism lived long.

Then in 98 to 117 AD under Emperor

Trean, the Roman Empire was able to

expand its greatest territorial extent,

spanning all the way from modern-day

Britain to the Persian Gulf. Roman rule

was

everywhere. Well, except for in the

Americas, because the Romans didn't even

know they existed. In the Americas, we

can see the growth of various

civilizations across the Andes located

in modern-day Peru and Chile. The Mochi

civilization was able to build

monumental structures like the Wakadel

Soul and Wakadela Luna. Impressive

pyramids that were the center of their

religions. They also created advanced

fertilization techniques that used bird

droppings as fertilizer. Their highly

centralized government made everyone

know their place in

society. While a little bit more south,

the Nazca civilization is one enthralled

in mystery. The people of Nazca created

a series of large scale geoglyph

consisting of hundreds of individual

figures, including geometric shapes,

animals, and human-like figures by

removing the dark reddish brown iron

oxidecoated pebbles covering the surface

of the Nazca desert. These lines are now

called Nazca lines, the purpose of which

is still unknown to this day and subject

to conspiracy theory today.

Around 100 AD, the Zapotch started

establishing Monte Albban, their

capital. It was one of the first

examples of urban planning in the

Americas. The city was laid out in a

grid pattern with main roads and smaller

side streets leading to plazas and

public buildings. The city was also

divided into different districts, each

with specialized functions such as

residential, administrative, and

religious, leaving it to be in use for a

thousand years after

[Music]

that. While back in Rome, after the end

of Trajan's reign in 117 AD, a new

emperor with a purpose was in hand.

Hadrien was a man tasked with a near

impossible. Keeping the massive Roman

Empire under one rule. He first had to

deal with a crisis with the newly

colonized Roman Britain. Like their

predecessors in Judea, the Roman Brits

did not like being Roman. So they

started to cause unrest. And in the eyes

of Hadrien, a real threat of revolution

was on his mind. So Hadrien had ordered

a massive wall aptly named Hadrien's

wall which spanned almost coast to

coast. Keeping it sunk in the conquered

people's minds that the Romans were here

staving off revolution in one region.

However, in Galilee things weren't as

peaceful. Simon Bar Kokba led a

rebellion of the Jewish people to free

themselves from Roman rule. As you see,

Rome was developing a new city called

Alia Capolina over the ruins of

Jerusalem from the last revolt with

temples dedicated to polytheistic gods

like Jupiter. By 132, Bar Kokba took the

bottle of Nasi, head of state. Many Jews

regarded him as the Messiah who would

save the Jewish people and restore their

independence. Goka's troops would storm

Ilia Capalina, almost knocking out

entirely the Roman garrison controlling

the city. Hadrien though would not have

it. So he sent a force of 120,000 men to

the lands of Judea to conquer and force

the Jewish people into submission. As

Casius Dio says in the history of Rome,

50 of their most important outposts and

985 of their most famous villages were

raised.

580,000 men were slain in the various

raids and battles, and the number of

those that perished by famine, disease,

and fire was past finding out. Thus,

nearly the whole of Judea was made

desolate. History of Rome

69.14 1:2 Rome made it clear that it was

not to be taken

lightly. While in China, the message was

quite different. The ideas of Buddhism

were spreading along with the Chinese

philosophies of Confucianism and Tauism

and built a dynasty. These three

philosophies work together to make the

Han dynasty stronger and more united in

many

ways. While in America, the Mayan

architects went across northern Pin and

designed a series of short broad temples

with wide staircases flanked by enormous

stucco masks. These stucco masks were

made of plaster and some burned and

powdered limestone. The Mayans built

these stone armatures into elaborate

deity faces to capture the soul of the

gods and bring it to the people. A

temple like the E7 sub, yes, historians

name Mayan temples like military

submarines, is a pyramid with 16 stucco

masks. Each allows us to go deeper into

the souls of these deities of the

past. In the Middle East, a new empire

was emerging with roots in the past. A

man named Ardashir claimed to have royal

blood that traced all the way back to

Cyrus the Great. Ardashir claimed that

he should be the true ruler of the

Persian Empire, not those frauds of the

Parththeians. Artichir was able to unite

the various tribes of Persia. In 224 AD,

Artichir I led his forces against the

Parthian king Artabenus V in a

significant battle at Hermas. The

Cisanian forces known for their cavalry

defeated the Parththeians and captured

Artabinus V. With this victory, Ardashir

I declared himself king and established

the Cisanian Empire. Ardashir I quickly

established a centralized government and

built a new capital at Tijapon on the

Tigris River. He reestablished the

Zoroastrian religion which had been

suppressed by the Parththeians as the

empire's official religion. He also

built a powerful military machine with

skilled cavalry and archers. He began to

expand his territory by conquering

neighboring

regions. As the Parththeians were on

their way out, so were the Han. The Han

dynasty's downfall was marked by

political instability, economic

problems, external threats, internal

rebellions, and power struggles. The

weakening of central authority allowed

regional warlords to seize power, and

the government's attempts to address

economic issues were unsuccessful.

External threats and rebellions weakened

the dynasty even further. A warlord

named Sao Pi declared himself emperor

and established the Weii dynasty,

officially ending the Han

dynasty. While back in Rome, Emperor

Dialesian 284 to 305 faced a problem.

Rome was becoming too large and

impossible to manage. So, Dialesian

created the tetrarchy and divided the

region into four where each region was

governed by a separate emperor. Within

the tetra, there were two types of

emperors, Augustus and Caesars.

Dialesian chose Maxameon to be his equal

to Augustus. In contrast, Galleras and

Constantius were appointed to be

Caesars. However, this system created

uncontrolled chaos and anarchy. Each

emperor had desires for power and

ambition and it all came to a head in

305 when power shifted. Both Dialesian

and Maximian retired and in 306

Constantius died. Three out of the four

original leaders were left out of the

system leading to a power vacuum to

come. Emperor Constantine the Great was

appointed by his father's army

unilaterally as an Augustus and a Caesar

at the same time to replace his father.

At the same time, Maximan's son,

Maxentius, felt as though he should have

been appointed Caesar instead of

Valyriius Seis. So, in 307, Maxentius

sent his army and forced Valyriius Seis

to surrender. Come 308, Galleras

appointed Lascinius to replace him. So

on the west side of Rome, two emperors

wanted to rule. Constantine ruled over

Gaul in Britain and Maxentius ruled

Italy and North Africa. Maxentius had a

difficult time consolidating his power

and he faced increasing resistance from

the people of Rome. To try and secure

his hold on power, Maxentius ordered the

construction of a new bridge across the

Tyber River near Rome known as the

Milvian Bridge. Constantine saw

Maxentius as a threat to his power. So

he decided to march on Rome to confront

him. As the two armies approached each

other near the Milvian Bridge,

Constantine had a vision of a cross in

the sky with the words in this sign

conquer. Some accounts suggest that this

vision may have been a dream or a

hallucination, while others suggest that

it may have been a sign from God.

Regardless of the nature of the vision,

Constantine took it as a sign that he

would be victorious in battle if he

fought under the sign of the Christian

cross. He had his soldiers paint this

symbol on their shields and banners, and

he went into battle with renewed vigor

and confidence. The battle was fierce

and brutal, with both sides suffering

heavy losses. Maxentius had a larger

army, but his troops were spread out and

disorganized. Constantine was able to

take advantage of this, and he was able

to push Maxentius's forces back towards

the Tyber River. In the chaos of the

retreat, Maxentius was forced off the

Milvian Bridge and into the water where

he drowned. Shortly after his victory,

Constantine met Lasinius at Midolanum,

modern Milan, to confirm several

political and dynastic arrangements to

produce the edict of Milan. This edict

gave power for Eastern Rome to the

Cinius and Constantine sole power of the

West. More importantly though, this

document extended religious tolerance

for Christians and restored any

properties confiscated from them during

the persecution. However, the peaceful

coexistence of both rulers was

short-lived. Though the edict allowed

for the safety of Christians, The Cineas

was still very much a paganist. Their

differences started to grow. All came

near the city of Crosopoulos in 324 AD

where both armies went and fought.

Constantine's military might was on

display. He was able to force the

Eastern Roman army towards the sea,

leaving many to be killed or captured.

Constantine was declared the sole leader

of Rome and Leinius was declared dead by

hanging. He renamed the eastern Roman

capital from Bisantium to Constantinople

to celebrate his victory. Then in 325

AD, Constantine presided over the first

council of Nissa when the 300 bishops

established the now famous Nyine Creed

which declared that Jesus Christ was

begotten, not made, and of one substance

with the father. Constantine was finally

baptized as a Christian on his deathbed

in 337 AD.

Come 370 AD, a new player was on the

scenes. The Huns were a barbaric nomadic

civilization who were masters of

warfare. According to legends, they were

taught horsemanship as early as the age

of three. Also, they would attack their

own with a sword to teach them how to

endure pain. These people weren't to be

messed lightly with. When they crossed

the Vulga River in 370 on their horses

and lusted for blood, the Allen

civilization didn't stand much chance. 2

years later, they attacked the Asher

Goths, an eastern tribe of Germanic

Goths, who harassed the Roman Empire by

frequently attacking their territories.

By 376, the Huns had attacked the

Visigothths, the western tribe of Goths,

and forced them to seek sanctuary within

the Roman Empire. As the Huns dominated

Goth and Visigothth lands, they earned a

new reputation as the new barbarians in

town and seemed unstoppable. By 395 AD,

they began invading Roman domains. And

some Roman Christians believed they were

devils who arrived straight from

hell. The reason they started invading

Rome was because of the death of

Theodosius the Great. His shining

achievement as emperor was keeping the

Goths and the Huns at bay. But on death,

he decided to follow the ideas of

Diolesian and split the empire up again.

splitting up control between his two

sons, Arcadius in the east and Honorius

in the west, making Theodosius the last

leader of a united

Rome. With Honorius in charge, the

incapable general made Western Rome an

easy target to be bullied. The

Visigothths, looking for a new place to

live, had their eyes set on Rome. So

throughout the early 410s, the Visigoths

ransacked various Roman cities. Then on

August 24th, 410, the Visigoth sacked

Rome, taking control of this historic

city. It was the first time in nearly

800 years that a foreign army occupied

the city of Rome. However, the Visigoths

couldn't maintain control of Rome.

Instead, they continued to ransack Roman

territories until they established their

kingdom in 418 in modern-day

Spain. While the prospects of existence

weren't so much better in Eastern Rome,

the notorious Attilaa the Hun was

gaining power and his brutal tactics

called him the scourge of God. After a

failed peace attempt in 441, Attilla and

his army stormed through the Balkans and

the Danaban frontier. Another peace

treaty was forged in 442, but Attilla

attacked again in

443, killing, ransacking, and pillaging

his way to the well fortified city of

Constantinople. However, due to

Constantinople's high walls, Attilla

couldn't conquer it. Instead, Attilla

was able to muster another peace

agreement. He would leave Constantinople

alone in exchange for an annual tribute

2,100 of gold. a staggering sum. Then in

451, the Huns invaded the Gauls,

allowing the once enemies of the

Visigoths and the Romans to wise up and

work together to fight the Huns.

According to legend, the night before

the imminent battle, Attilla consulted

sacrificed bones and saw that thousands

of his army would fall in the fight. The

next day, his premonition came true. In

the Battle of the Catalanian Plains,

after hours of ferocious fighting, tens

of thousands of soldiers lay dead,

giving Attilla his first and only

military defeat in history. However,

even after the loss, Attilla and his

army marched on and returned to Italy,

continuously ravaging the cities. In

452, with Rome in sight, he met Pope Leo

I, who acted as an emissary between

Aillaa and Rome. There's no record of

what they discussed. Still, according to

legend, the apparitions of St. Paul and

St. Peter appeared to Aillaa. They

threatened to kill him if he didn't

negotiate with Pope Leo I. Attilla

decided to pull out of Italy and return

to the great Hungarian plane. Whether

because of his fear of the Pope and his

saintly allies or because of his troops

were stretched too thin and weakened by

malaria.

However, the struggle for Western Rome

wasn't over. In 476 AD, the young

emperor Romulus Augustus had trouble

keeping power for himself as many Romans

felt he was illegitimate. So, the

Eastern Roman Empire sent the Germanic

general Odaser and his mercenaries to

suppress a revolt by the Roman army in

the region. However, instead of

supporting the Eastern Roman Empire,

Odaser saw an opportunity to seize power

for himself. He turned against the Roman

government and deposed the last Western

Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus,

effectively marking the end of the

Western Roman Empire. As the steps of

his victory, Odaser was declared the

king of Italy. However, Odaser's victory

was short-lived because in 493,

Theodoric the Great of the Ostrogoths

with the support of Eastern Roman

Emperor Zeno came in and created the

Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy, sending

Odius to meet his

fate. While Europe was in the crux of a

dark age, India under the Gupta Empire

was in a mathematical golden age. Great

mathematicians like Brahma Gupta started

using zero as a placeholder and as

various solutions for mathematical

equations. The astronomer Arabata was

able to calculate the circumference of

the earth. He proved the world was round

long before it was globally accepted.

Arabata was also able to develop methods

for calculating pi and square roots.

However, his crowning achievement was

creating the concept of an asytote,

which is a line that approaches the

curve but never touches

it. The Franks under Clovis I had been

engaged with the Alammani, another

Germanic tribe, and tensions between the

two groups were running high. In 496 AD

in the battle of Tobek, Clovis I led his

forces into battle against the Alammani

with both sides eager to gain the upper

hand in the ongoing struggle for power

and territory. As the Alammani began to

push the Franks to defeat and a moment

of desperation, Clovis called out to the

Christian God for assistance, promising

to convert to Christianity if he emerged

victorious. According to legend, a

sudden thunderstorm appeared and the

Franks could regroup and launch a

successful counterattack against the

Alammani. The battle ended in a decisive

victory for the Franks and Clovis kept

his promise and converted to

Christianity, officially cementing

Christianity to the forefront and

birthing the Frankish kingdom.

While the western Roman Empire might

have fallen in the east the Roman Empire

was changing. Many historians argue that

the Eastern Roman Empire based out of

Constantinople should be considered a

part of Rome. However, it is undeniable

that under Justinian I would lead the

Eastern half into its next chapter in

life, the Byzantine Empire. Whether it's

a continuation of the Roman Empire

before is a debate for another under.

Under the leadership of Justinian I,

like many Roman emperors before him, he

would expand the Byzantine Empire to

reach places such as Italy, North

Africa, and even Spain. He also

commissioned a team of legal scholars to

codify all the laws of the Roman Empire

known as the Corpus Jurus Civilis, which

became the basis of the European laws we

know today. He also commissioned the

world-renowned Hegia Sophia in

Constantinople where this beautiful

cathedral adorned with intricate mosaics

and marble decorations became the head

of the Eastern Orthodox

[Music]

Church. However, Jesus wasn't the only

prophet at the time. In the small town

of Mecca, a nomadic tribe called the Qur

gave birth to a man who would change the

religious world yet again. Muhammad.

Muhammad was orphaned at an early age

and was raised by his grandfather and

later his uncle. As he grew up, he

worked as a merchant, which earned him

the nickname Alamin, meaning the

trustworthy. On one of his pilgrimages

in 610, Muhammad meditated in a cave on

Mount Jabalor, the angel Gabriel

appeared and relayed the word of God.

Recite in the name of your Lord who

creates creates a man from a clot.

Recite for your Lord is most generous

became the opening verses of Surah.

Chapter 96 of the Quran. At first,

Muhammad was reluctant, not knowing how

to disclose this information. However,

soon enough, Muhammad began to gather a

small following, which was mocked by the

pagans of Mecca. However, when Muhammad

denounced idol worship, the leader of

Mecca knew that he was through. So,

through the resistance from Mecca,

Muhammad and his followers were

eventually forced to immigrate to

Medina, a city 260 mi away. there.

Muhammad was instrumental in ending

various civil wars, creating a

prosperous Muslim community.

Nevertheless, this prosperity would be

challenged by the members of Muhammad's

old tribe, the Curesh and their allies,

who marched up to Medina with a large

army to attack the Muslims. Muhammad

devised a plan that they could defend

the city if they dug a trench around its

perimeter, making it near impossible for

enemy forces to penetrate. For several

weeks, the Curesh tried to break through

the trench, trying and trying yet again.

Eventually, strong wind and heavy rain

caused the Curesh forces to abandon the

siege, marking the Muslims as

victorious. In 6:30, the Muslim army

marched into Mecca, taking the city with

minimum casualties. Muhammad gave

amnesty to the enemy leaders who once

opposed him, converting most of the

Meccan population to

Islam. At the time of Muhammad's death,

the Muslims had successfully united the

Arabian Peninsula under the banner of

Islam. After Muhammad's death, a series

of caiffs or leaders took over the

leadership of the Muslim community.

Beginning with Abu Bakr, a close

companion of the prophet. Under the

leadership of the caiffs, the Muslim

community continued to expand its

territory, conquering new lands and

spreading the message of Islam. At

first, Akubacher had his eyes set on the

Byzantine Empire's provinces of Syria,

taking over the crucial cities of

Damascus and Jerusalem. Then in 636, the

Arab forces invaded the Sassined Empire,

taking over their capital city in 637,

marking the end of the Sassined Empire.

Onward to Egypt they went, where after

years of fighting they successfully

defeated the Byzantine to take over the

city of Alexandria in 642 AD,

economically crippling the Byzantines.

By 716, the Arab forces had conquered

much of North Africa, Carthage, and

Spain, so that by 716, the Arabs had an

extensive empire from Lisbon to China.

After consolidating their hold on the

Iberian Peninsula, the Arabs launched

raids into neighboring Franchia,

modern-day France, in 732 AD, they

launched a significant invasion to

expand their territory northward. The

Arabs forces led by Amir Abdul Raman

Algafiki quickly conquered several

cities in the region, including Bordeaux

and Tours. However, Charles Martell, the

military leader of the Franks, assembled

a large army to meet the Arabs in

battle. The battle of Christianity

versus Islam. Both empires wanted to

keep their own faith. The Arabs wanted

to impose their religion onto the

Franks. The two forces clashed near

Tours on October 10th, 7:32 AD. The

battle was fierce and lasted several

days with both sides suffering heavy

casualties. In the end though, Charles

Martell and the Franks emerged

victorious and the Arab forces were

forced to retreat back to Spain, ending

the massive expansion of the Arabic

Empire.

[Music]

While in the west the definition of god

was war in China during the rule of the

tang religions like Buddhism, taoism and

confucianism all coexisted peacefully. A

citizen was able to believe what they

wanted to believe for many temples and

pagotas to be built across the empire.

Also during the tang the height of

Chinese poetry was upon us. Poets like

Leeo and Dufu created poems that later

became the foundations of Chinese

literature. Leeo wrote a poignant poem

called Zanzen on theQing thing mountain

translated by Sam Hamill. The birds have

vanished down the sky. Now the last

cloud drains away. We sit together the

mountain and me until only the mountain

remains.

Charlemagne, also known as Charles the

Great, became the king of the Franks in

768. Charlemagne was a skilled military

leader who expanded the Frankish Empire

through successful campaigns. He

conquered much of Western Europe,

including modern-day France, Germany,

Italy, and Spain. Charlemagne was also a

devout Christian, and worked to spread

Christianity throughout his empire.

In 785, Heron was declared caiff.

Instead of focusing on conquering like

his brethren, he instead focused on the

scientific growth in the new capital

city of Baghdad. Heron al-Rashid wanted

to create the House of Wisdom, a library

and research center that attracted

scholars from around the world. These

scholars would come to the house of

wisdom with the desire to learn. They've

translated the works of the past as well

as developing the science of algebra,

chemistry, sociology, and the concept of

infinity. While the Vikings had a

different idea of progress. The Vikings

were a group of univilized pagans from

modern-day Scandinavia who wanted to

gain material wealth. So, June 8th, 793

AD marked the beginning of the Viking

age in Europe. Lindesfarn was a small

isolated island off the northeast coast

of England that was home to a famous

monastery and considered one of Europe's

most important centers of learning. On

the day of the raid, a group of Viking

warriors, likely from Norway or Denmark,

landed on the island and attacked the

monastery. The Vikings pillaged the

monastery, killing many monks and taking

others as slaves. The raid was a brutal

and unexpected attack on a place of

great religious and cultural

significance and it sent shock waves

throughout

Europe. In 799 in Rome, Pope Leo III was

attacked by a faction of Rome who

believed that the Pope was guilty of

tyranny and serious personal misconduct.

So, Pope Leo III ran away to the

Frankish kingdom. After this,

Charlemagne and his Frank army provided

an escort for the Pope and restored him

to the papal office. But yet, the power

of the papacy was being questioned with

many people wanting it to go away, which

caused Charlemagne to go to Rome in late

800 to fight for his pope. For his

loyalty, on Christmas Day in the

Basilica of St. Peter. Pope Leo III

placed a crown on Charlemagne's head,

declaring him the new Holy Roman

Emperor, creating a new Roman Empire,

the Holy Roman Empire, or at least the

first rendition of it. Under

Charlemagne, the foundations of a

genuinely great empire were forming. But

once Charlemagne died in 814, the new

empire was bludgeoning with

problems.

His son Lewis the pious 788 to 840

inherited an empire filled with

problems. Many of his own citizens

viewed him as a strong Catholic who was

well-intentioned but was incredibly weak

and unable to do anything. As the

Vikings continued their raids along the

Ryan River, attacking Holy Roman Empire

cities such as Cologne, Trier, and

Mains, raiding various Catholic

monasteries and destroying religious

artifacts caused fear and hatred among

his citizens. Why would anyone trust a

leader if they can't stop barbaric

pagans? So, various local leaders

started to focus on defending their land

rather than relying on the central

government for defense. Hence beginning

the process of independently recreating

the Chinese system of feudalism. At this

time, people would willingly farm on

lands, giving up their freedom to these

local leaders to protect them from the

Vikings, creating the basis of a new

system of

feudalism. While the Holy Roman Empire

might have been fighting with the

Vikings and the Byzantines were fighting

with the Arabs, in 820, a group of Arab

raiders landed on the island of Cree.

Over the next several years, Arab forces

gradually gained control of the island,

overcoming the resistance of the

Byzantine defenders. The conquest was

completed in 827 and Cree became part of

the Arab Empire. The conquest of Sicily

and Sardinia followed a similar pattern.

In 827, a large Arab fleet landed on

Sicily and Arab forces quickly gained

control of much of the island. They then

moved on to Sardinia which fell to the

Arab invaders in

828. In the Holy Roman Empire once Lewis

the Pious died in 840 AD. So did the

Charlemagne Empire. The infighting

between family members grew leading to

the Holy Roman Empire being divided

between three family members in the

famous Treaty of Verdon. In the west,

the formation of the West Frankish

kingdom was given to Charlemagne's

grandson, Charles the Bald, in

modern-day France. In the East, the East

Frankish Kingdom was given to another

grandson, Lewis the German, which was

obviously settled in modern-day Germany,

while the Middle Kingdom was given to

Charlemagne's eldest son, Lair. However,

being squeezed in between the West and

East Frankish kingdoms gave the Middle

Kingdom a short lifespan and was

practically

irrelevant. The Vikings weren't just a

problem for mainland Europe. They were

pillaging everything in mainland

England. So, in 871, the new king of

Wessex, Alfred the Great, rose to power

with one thing in mind, keeping everyone

safe. Alfred built a network of

fortifications known as burrs designed

to protect his people from Viking

attacks. He also developed new military

tactics and strategies and fostered

alliances with other Anglo-Saxon

kingdoms. Unlike in Great Britain

though, the Vikings were actually

invited to Russia. According to Russian

legend, the tribes in Russia were tired

of dealing with political strife. So

they invited the Verangians, a sect of

Vikings to establish order and a

government over there. Hence, Rurick

came with his two brothers to the city

of Navgarod and using the Vikings famous

force, they were able to establish order

in the city. Declaring Rurick as their

new king, creating the Keieven Roose

dynasty. Under the military leadership

of Oleg, one of the Ruric Kingsmen, the

Keieven RS started establishing Smolinsk

and Kiev in modern-day Ukraine, creating

the forefront of Russia today.

While back in England, expanding upon

his grandfather Alfred the Great's

alliance network, Athlan was declared

king of Essex, Athlan was able to get

all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to work

together to fend off the Vikings of the

British Isles. He was declared to be the

first king of England due to his ability

to navigate alliances and keep everyone

safe, beginning one of the longest

monarchies in human history.

While the East Frankish kingdom was

facing a similar problem, the pagan

maguars were attacking everyone across

the kingdom, leaving the kingdom to live

in fear. However, King Otto of the East

Frankish Empire was able to defeat the

pesky Maguars at the Battle of Lechfeld

955. Then in 961, he could fully conquer

all of the kingdoms of Italy, restoring

Christendom to all the former pagans. So

in 962 Otto I was coronated to Pope John

I 12th in Rome to be the new Holy Roman

Emperor. In France though the West

Frankish kingdom was struggling because

in 987 King Louis V a direct descendant

of Charlemagne died at age 20 without

leaving an heir to take over their

dynasty leaving the French monarchy in

peril. So the French aristocracy had an

election between Hugh Kappit, a noble

with extensive lands in the region of

Isle de France and Charles, Duke of

Lower Lraine. With the support of

Adelber, the Archbishop of Roms, Hugh

Kapet became the first king of France,

starting the Capescian dynasty.

[Music]

However, at this time, the typical

person in Europe was always living in

fear. Every civilization was on the

verge of conquering. They've all become

landhungry and were willing to fight for

it. So, across Europe at this time,

every civilization started to entrench

their society in the ideas of feudalism

leading to another social pyramid. At

the bottom lay the serfs. Their job was

to farm the land and ensure everyone was

fed. Then came the knight who provided

protection for the people. Then came the

nobles who ruled over a specific

territory owning the land. Then came the

kings as previously mentioned who gave

lands to the nobles. But all the way at

the top was the pope because the pope

could speak directly to God and had

godgiven ownership of all the lands.

In the early 11th century, Leaf Ericson

was sent on a voyage to discover lands

west of Greenland. If you look at a map,

west of Greenland is the Americas. So,

Leaf and his crew ventured to this new

mystical land called Vinland in

modern-day New Finland, Canada. Leaf and

his crew spent the winter in Vinland,

establishing a small settlement and

trading with the local indigenous

people. They also explored the

surrounding area which they found rich

in natural resources including timber,

fish, and game. Leaf and his crew

returned to Greenland in the spring

where they were greeted as heroes for

discovering new lands. Little did Leaf

know that he discovered a new continent

for his European people.

[Music]

Though significantly less is known about

the Americas, some historians believe

that at the time a similar type of

expansion happened in the American

continent like in Europe. Sadly, we just

don't have the historical records from

this unique period. We know that the

Mayans down in South America were

building the impressive cities of Tikl,

Palenke, and Chichinitsa having a

population of anywhere between 2 and 10

million. We also know that there were

various tribes across the north,

including the Cherokee, the Navajo, and

the Inuits. The Inuits are most likely

to have interacted with Leaf's fleet.

While back in Europe, in the holy city

of Jerusalem laid the very famous

church, the church of the holy sepulker.

According to Christian belief, this

church was built on the day Jesus was

crucified and resurrected. However, in

1009 AD, Arab Califf al-Hakim ordered

the destruction of this sacred holy

site. All of the sacred sites were

destroyed, leaving them completely

annihilated. When the news reached

Europe, Christians were horrified. Pope

Sergius IV sent a circular letter to all

churches calling for a holy fight in the

Middle East and the expulsion of Muslims

from the Holy

Land. But yet, the Arabs of the Abbised

Caliphate would actually be expelled by

another before Jerusalem. The Seljic

Turks, a central Asian Turk people of

the Muslim faith, were beginning to grow

their empire. In 1055 they took over the

abbiscided caliphate capital city of

Baghdad. The Seljic Turks initially

respected the caiff but the Seljixs took

over the city over time. In 1076 they

captured Medina followed the next year

by the capturing of Mecca, the holiest

city in Islam.

[Music]

Due to this, the Muslim world wasn't

ready for Pope Urban II at the Council

of Claremont in 1095 to call upon all

Christians to take up arms and liberate

the Holy Land from Muslim rule. The Pope

promised spiritual rewards and

forgiveness of sins to those who joined

the crusade, and many knights, nobles,

and peasants were inspired to take up

the cause. Many European nobles such as

Godfrey of Bullan to lose Bohem of

Toronto and Robert of Flanders brought

their armies from Europe on their

journey to Jerusalem. While the

Christians were united, the Muslims were

divided and unable to put up a strong

defense against the crusaders. Hence,

the Christians took over the county of

Adessa in 1098 and finally the holy city

of Jerusalem in 1099.

However, the crusade wasn't done. In

1144, the Muslim forces led by Turkish

ruler Ahmad Adenzingi launched a siege

against Adessa. The city was poorly

defended and the crusaders could not

resist the Muslim forces for long. After

a siege of several weeks, the city was

breached and the Muslim forces overran

the city, killing or enslaving much of

the population. But the Christians

weren't happy with that. So in 1147 the

massive armies of Europe came back with

attempts to free Adessa. The crusaders

faced significant logistical challenges

including shortages of food and

supplies. They were also plagued by

infighting and political rivalries which

called the campaign to be in ruin after

the disastrous loss of the battle of

Anob in 1149 which resulted in the

capture of King Louis VI and the loss of

much of the crusader

army. While the Christians and Muslims

were fighting, the Hindus in the Camar

Empire under King Surya II built a

fantastic temple for the Hindu god

Vishnu called the Ankor Watt. Vishnu is

an important god in Hinduism known as

the preserver and protector of the

universe. He has 10 incarnations or

avatars and is often depicted as having

blue skin and holding four objects. As

you approach Ankorwatt, you are greeted

by a massive moat and a grand entrance

gate adorned with intricate carvings of

mythological creatures and deities. The

main temple rises like a towering

mountain with intricate carvings and

reliefs that tell the stories of Hindu

mythology and the history of the Chimera

Empire. The temple's galleries are lined

with stunning bass reliefs depicting

scenes of battles, ceremonies, and daily

life in ancient Cambodia. At the heart

of the complex is the central sanctuary,

a massive pyramid-like structure

surrounded by smaller temples and

courtyards. The sanctuary is considered

the most sacred part of the temple

adorned with intricately carved statues

and images of Hindu gods and goddesses.

It was an incredible feat of human

ingenuity. But yet in 1187, the Muslim

commander from Egypt, Saladine, became

fed up with the Christian rule of

Jerusalem. So he declared a holy war

across the Muslim world in order to

reconquer Jerusalem from the Christians.

The battle occurred on a scorching hot

day in the hills near the Sea of

Galilee. Saladine's forces numbered

around 20,000. The crusaders had a much

smaller force of around 12,000 knights,

soldiers, and civilians under the aptly

named king, King Guy. The battle began

with skirmishes between the two sides,

but soon escalated into a fullscale

engagement. Saladine's forces could use

their superior cavalry to encircle the

crusaders, who could not break through

the Muslim lines. The heat and thirst

soon took a toll on the crusaders, who

were weakened and disoriented. The

Muslim forces took advantage of the

situation. They launched a fierce

attack, breaking through the crusader

lines and capturing many knights. King

Guy and a small group of knights were

able to escape the battlefield. Still,

the majority of the crusader army was

destroyed. The loss of the battle was a

severe blow to the Christian forces in

the region, and it paved the way for

Saladine's conquest of Jerusalem.

But the Christians weren't going to

allow that. So guess what happened?

Another crusade. This time the three

most powerful monarchs at the time,

Emperor Frederick I of the Holy Roman

Empire, King Richard I of England and

King Philip II of France, sent their

best armies to reconquer the Holy City

of Jerusalem. However, all the force in

the world couldn't retake Jerusalem from

the grips of Saladine, leaving the Third

Crusade to be a

failure. Genghis was born to a mother

kidnapped by his father and forced into

marriage. Legend holds that he came into

this world clutching a blood clot in his

right hand. Before he turned 10, his

father was poisoned to death by an enemy

clan. Genghis' clan then deserted him,

his mother, and his six siblings to

avoid having to feed them. However, he

soon began to make friends with the

other clans throughout the Mongolian

mountainside. By 1206, he had united all

the various tribes, uniting 1 million

people. For the time, Genis was quite

progressive. He made it illegal to sell

and kidnap women, banished the idea of

enslavement of any Mongol, and even

allowed freedom of religion. When it

came to war, though, Genghis was as

barbaric as the next one. His first

campaign was against the Shisha Kingdom

in 129. His army of mostly cavalry men

on horses quickly outnumbered and

destroyed the kingdom. His next target

was the Xin dynasty in China. From 1211

to 1214, the outnumbered Mongols ravaged

the countryside, causing food shortages,

resulting in the Xinn Army killing tens

of thousands of their own peasants just

so their elites could live. In 1214, the

Mongols besieged the capital of Zongu,

now Beijing, and burnt it to the ground.

In the early 13th century, King Jon was

facing increasing pressure from his

barrens who were demanding greater

rights and protections under the law. In

response to their demands, Jon agreed to

meet with the barrens and negotiate a

settlement. The result of these

negotiations was the Magna Carta, a

document that set out a series of rights

and freedoms that the king could not

violate. Among these rights were the

right to a fair trial, the right to due

process of law, and the right to be

protected from arbitrary arrest and

imprisonment. The Magna Carta also

established the principle of habius

corpus, which required the government to

produce a prisoner in court and provide

a lawful reason for their detention.

This principle has been a cornerstone of

modern legal systems around the world.

Then in 1217, there was another crusade.

This time led by King Andrew II of

Hungary and Duke Leopold V 6th of

Austria with the same goal in mind to

take over Jerusalem. The crusaders

successfully captured the city of

Dametta in 1219, but they could not

advance further into Egypt. After a

series of setbacks, including capture

and imprisonment of many crusaders, the

Christian forces were forced to abandon

their campaign in Egypt. The crusaders

eventually agreed to a treaty with the

Muslim forces, allowing them to leave

Egypt unharmed, but without achieving

their ultimate

goal. Genghaskhan wasn't done, though.

in 1219 went to war against the Quzam

Empire in present-day Turk Manistan,

Usbekiststan, Afghanistan, and Iran.

During his raids, the Mongol hordes

swept through one city after another,

taking over the likes of Burkara,

Samarind, and Arjench. Skilled workers

such as carpenters and jewelers were

usually saved, while aristocrats and

resisting soldiers were killed.

Unskilled workers, meanwhile, were often

used as human shields during the next

assault. No one knows with any certainty

how many people died during

Genghaskhan's wars, in part because the

Mongols propagated their vicious image

as a way of spreading terror. At

Genghaskhan's death, he controlled a

massive territory from the Sea of Japan

to the Caspian Sea. However, even more

impressively, around 8% of the men in

South Asia descend from Genghask Khan

today. In 1228, Emperor Frederick II of

the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer

the Holy Land, but failed, ending the

Sixth Crusade. Of course, the Holy Roman

Empire couldn't be the only one

crusading. King Louis the 9inth of

France in 1248 decided to start the

seventh crusade to retake Jerusalem but

he was taken prisoner by the Muslims and

forced to pay a hefty ransom as he

retreated. However, that didn't deter

King Louis the 9th because in 1270 he

was at it again trying to free Jerusalem

from the grips of Muslim rule but this

time he died of dysentery. Once King

Louis the 9inth died, his troops

retreated, creating the eighth and final

time there was a

crusade in England. Though in 1295,

England was making a diplomatic headway.

In a letter summoning Parliament, King

Edward I wrote, "Since the most

righteous law of the emperors ordains

that what touches all should be approved

by all, so it appears that common

dangers should be met by remedies agreed

upon in common." As King Edward, I would

then request a tenth of the incomes of

nobles and an 11th of the income of

knights, creating one of the first

parliaments we would see in the new

age. While down in Africa, a leader of

extravagant wealth, Mansam Musa, was

gaining power on his famous Haj, a

religious Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca

that every Muslim should make at least

once in his life. Mansam Musa with his

caravan of camels and an army of

scholars gave vast amounts of gold to

any poor person he saw. Hence crashing

all of the economies in northern Africa

due to the inflation of gold. When

Mansam Musa returned to Mali, he made it

his life purpose to make Timbuktu the

Muslim capital of knowledge. So Mansam

Musa invested heavily in building the

University of Sor. Various Islamic faith

scholars quickly made their way to Sanor

to study Islamic theology, law and

literature with over 1 million

manuscripts. Mansamusa was also a very

religious man with a policy that he

commissioned a new mosque every Friday.

However, sadly though, only the

Jingerabber mosque in Timbuktu stood the

test of time.

In the Americas though, another built on

riches was being created. As Aztec

legend has it, the god Weeds poachi

directed them to build where they saw an

eagle perched on a cactus eating a

snake. When they saw this exact scene on

an island located in what was once Lake

Texoko, they interpreted it as a sign

from their god and founded Tenno Chidlan

on that island. As time passed,

Tenochidlon started to build impressive

temples such as the great temple. The

great temple comprised of two main

structures dedicated to the gods

Wheatilapoi and Lelay. The city itself

was most fascinating. It was designed

with a complex system of canals and

causeways to help control flooding and

facilitate transport across the city.

while they started to farm on floating

gardens known as chinampas on the

shallow waters of Lake Tex Cocoa which

were used to grow crops such as maize

beans and

squash. As Mali and the Aztecs were

building their cities, England and

France were in war for 100 years. The

origins of the conflict lay with the

status of the duche of Gaen. In basic

capitalistic terms, this was owned by

the British crown. However, the land

itself was in France. The second reason

was that the last direct descendant of

Charlemagne, King Charles IV, died in

1328. So, the next closest relative was

Edward III, the king of England. So,

King Edward III claimed the rule of

France in

1337, which was not liked by the French

people. As the petty, erratic hundred

years war raged on, the people of the

world had to face a pandemic like no

other, the bubanic plague. As the

Italian poet Giovani Bokeacio wrote, "At

the beginning of the malady, certain

swellings either on the groin or under

the armpits waxed to the bigness of a

common apple, others to the size of an

egg, some more and some less, and these

the vulgar named plague boils."

Historians believe this pandemic was

spread by rats traveling through ships

across Europe and merchants throughout

the Silk Road. No matter how this plague

was produced, around 75 to 200 million

people died. With the death of so many

people, especially the poor, land owners

and nobles were required to allow

farmers to keep more of the product they

farmed, leading to more workers

rights. In China though, a group of

rebels known as the Red Turbans revolted

against the Mongol rulers of China. The

Red Turbans were led by a man named Zu

Yen Jang. Born into a poor peasant

family, Zu built a strong following

among the rebel forces and eventually

emerged as their leader. In

1368, Zu declared himself emperor and

established the Ming dynasty, marking

the beginning of a new era in Chinese

history.

In 1428 at the age of 16, Joan left her

home in the village of Dommy and

traveled to the court of Charles IIth

where she asked for permission to lead

the French army against the English. At

first, her request was met with

skepticism and disbelief. Still, Joan

persisted and eventually won the support

of the French commanders. Joan's first

major military victory came in the siege

of Orleans in 1429. She led the French

troops in a series of daring attacks on

the English forces and she broke the

siege and liberated the city. This

victory boosted French morale and helped

to turn the tide of the war in their

favor. Over the next several months,

Joan led the French army to victories

against the English, including the

Battle of Pate in June 1429.

However, her success also made her

enemies in the English and French court.

In 1430, she was captured by the English

and put on trial for heresy and

witchcraft. Joan was subjected to a

grueling trial. She was accused of

various crimes, including dressing in

men's clothing, practicing sorcery, and

hearing voices. Despite the odds against

her, Joan remained steadfast in her

faith and her belief that she was

carrying out God's will. In the end,

Joan was found guilty and sentenced to

death by burning at stake. She was

executed on May 30th,

1431 at 19. Then 20 years later in the

battle of Castellian, Charles IIIth of

France led a French army which defeated

the English army, effectively ending

English territorial claims in

France. While back in the great city of

Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire was

declining, weakened by years of war,

political instability, and economic

turmoil. In contrast, the Ottoman Empire

led by Sultan Memed II was on the rise

and the Sultan saw an opportunity to

expand his empire and gain control of

the strategic city of Constantinople. By

1453, Memed II led an army of 80,000

soldiers, including elite Janisary

troops and a powerful artillery force to

besiege Constantinople. The Byzantine

defenders, led by Emperor Constantine XI

11th, were vastly outnumbered and

outgunned. They faced a seemingly

impossible task to hold off the Ottoman

assault. The Ottomans bombarded the city

with artillery for nearly 2 months,

causing extensive damage to the walls

and fortifications. The Byzantine

defenders, meanwhile, struggled to

maintain morale and keep their troops

fed and supplied. Then on the fateful

day, May 29th, 1453, the Ottomans

launched a massive assault on the city.

Climbing up covered by siege towers,

they were able to breach the walls and

gain access to the city. Despite putting

up a valiant defense, the Byzantine

defenders were overwhelmed, and the

Ottomans were able to storm the city and

capture the capital, causing the great

Byzantine Empire to fall. In

1453, all paths no longer led to Rome

and all traces back to the Empire of

Caesar were erased. It was replaced by

the beginning of utter Ottoman

domination in the region, ushering in a

new era of Turkish power and influence

in the

Mediterranean. While the Byzantines

might have been falling, the Russians

were finally gaining their independence.

At the time, the Mongol Empire was

ruling over Russia, demanding that

various Russian towns pay tribute or

face the wrath of the Mongols. However,

in 1472, Ivan the Great refused to pay

such tribute. Over the next several

years, he built up his military strength

and was able to drive out the Mongol

garrisons from various cities and towns

throughout Russia. In 1480, the Mongols

demanded that Ivan pay tribute or face

military action. But after a tense

standoff, they finally retreated. Ivan's

victory was the beginning of a free

Russia and the decline of the Mongolian

Empire. Then in 1492, as Christopher

Columbus sailed, the ocean blue, the

Europeans discovered the new world. set

initially on finding a path to India.

Instead, he landed on an island in the

Bahamas, which he aptly named San

Salvador. When he and his crew set up

camp, he met the Lucayians, skilled

fishermen and farmers, who welcomed him

and his crew and provided them with food

and

supplies. While back in Europe, a golden

age of culture was upon us. In 1503,

Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa.

Da Vinci's biographer Walter Isacson

says, "The Mona Lisa to me is the

greatest emotional painting ever done.

The way the smile flickers makes it a

work of art and science because Leonardo

understood optics, the muscles of the

lips, and how light strikes the eye. All

of it goes into making the Mona Lisa's

smile so mysterious and elusive." In

1504, Michelangelo sculpted David.

Michelangelo would say, "In every block

of marble, I see a statue as plain as

though it stood before me, shaped and

perfect in attitude and action. I have

only to he away the rough walls that

imprison the lovely apparition to reveal

it to the other eyes as mine see it."

While in 1506, Michelangelo was painting

the magnificent painting of the cyine

chapel. While in the political world,

Nicolo Makavelli is one of, if not the

most influential pieces of literature we

have today. The prince is a political

manifesto that comments on the past

civilizations we've heard about. In this

video, Mchavelli writes, "It is much

safer to be feared than loved because

love is preserved by the link of

obligation, which owing to the beastness

of men is broken at every opportunity

for their advantage. But fear preserves

you by a dread of punishment which never

fails. Think about the ordinary farmer.

Think about the man who spends

generations of their life farming,

giving heavy taxes to a noble lord for

doing nothing except protecting them.

Why won't the farmers rebel? It's

because they're afraid of what would

happen without their leaders. Without

the elites, the Huns or the Mongols can

come to your farm and destroy you on

their own. So, you live in fear as to

what might happen to you, leaving you to

give your wheat to said leader.

[Music]

Martin Luther though didn't just report

on the basics of human nature. Martin

wanted to make a difference and was sick

of the Catholic Church. At the time, the

Catholic Church was selling indulgences,

which were certificates that people

could purchase to reduce the amount of

time they would spend in purgatory after

they died. Luther believed this practice

was corrupt and went against the Bible's

teachings which emphasized the

importance of repentance and faith over

material wealth. In protest, he wrote a

series of 95 thesis or arguments

challenging the church's authority and

calling for reform. On October 31st,

1517, Luther nailed his 95 thesis to the

door of the castle church in Wittenberg,

which was a common way of announcing a

public debate or discussion. Luther's 95

thesis sparked a debate within the

church and among European scholars and

theologians. Some people agreed with his

criticisms of the church, while others

saw him as a heretic and a threat to the

established order. The beginning of

Protestantism was upon

[Music]

us. In 1519 though, the Spanish

concistadors under the leadership of

Hernand Cortez arrived on the Aztec

shores. They were greeted by the Aztecs

who gave gifts of gold and silver of

incredible wealth to the Spanish as they

believed that the Spaniards were

emissaries of the god Ketzel Colottel.

However, Cortez soon revealed his true

intentions to conquer the Aztec Empire

and claim its wealth for Spain. Over

several years, Cortez and his forces

engaged in a series of battles with the

Aztecs. Marked by intense violence and

brutality, the Spanish were aided by

their superior military technology,

including guns and cannons, and by the

support of indigenous allies, who were

the enemies of the Aztecs. Despite being

vastly outnumbered, Cortez and his men

made significant gains against the

Aztecs. Eventually laying siege to their

capital city of Tinoidlon. After months

of fighting, the city fell to the

Spanish in 1521 and the Aztec Empire was

effectively destroyed. Then following

the strategy of Cortez, Francisco

Pizarro led an expedition that conquered

the Incan Empire in present-day Peru.

Though the violence was authoritarian,

the biohazards were even more demanding.

The Europeans, due to having survived

illnesses such as the bubanic plague and

smallpox, developed immunity to many of

these diseases that they've one way or

another spread to the native people,

essentially over time killing them off.

Under Sullean the Magnificent's

leadership, the Ottoman Empire became

one of the most powerful and influential

empires in world history. Sullean was a

brilliant strategist and military leader

and his reign was marked by significant

conquests and political achievements.

Like many other leaders, he set out to

conquer the world. By the end of his

reign, Sullean the Magnificent presided

over a vast empire that stretched from

southeastern Europe to the deserts of

Arabia and from the shores of the

Mediterranean to the plains of Persia.

His conquests included the capture of

Belgrade in Budapest in Europe,

Jerusalem and Mecca in the Middle East,

and Tabri and Baghdad in Persia. The

Ottomans also became the dominant naval

power in the Mediterranean with control

over North African cities such as Alers

and Tunis creating the dominant Ottoman

[Music]

civilization. But yet all things fall

when one is in love. And the murderhappy

King Henry had fallen in love with Anne

Boland and was desperate to marry her.

However, Katherine of Aragon was still

alive and the Catholic Church did not

recognize divorce. Henry's solution was

to break away from the Catholic Church

and established the Church of England

with himself as the head. In 1534, Henry

passed the Act of Supremacy, which

declared that the king, not the Pope,

was the supreme head of the Church of

England, leaving the Catholic Church to

be angry and excommunicate Henry VIIth,

leaving a schism between the Church of

England and the Catholic Church even

today. Ivan the Terrible is now the

ruler of Russia. In the early years of

his reign, Ivan enjoyed significant

success, launching military campaigns

against neighboring kingdoms and

expanding Russia's borders. He also

oversaw the construction of magnificent

public works, including St. Basil's

Cathedral in

Moscow. However, as Ivan grew older, he

became increasingly paranoid and

erratic. He launched a series of brutal

purges and executions, targeting anyone

he perceived as threatening his power.

He also had a volatile temper, lashing

out at advisers and nobles who dared to

question his decisions. In 1560, Ivan

suffered a devastating personal loss

when his beloved wife Anastasia died.

This event seems to have triggered a

significant psychological breakdown and

Ivan became increasingly unstable and

violent. He launched a series of bloody

campaigns against his own people,

including the notorious Opri Nina, a

campaign of terror and repression that

killed thousands of Russians and

destroyed countless homes and families.

Truly deserving of the name terrible.

While Russia was going through that,

England was on the rise with the start

of the English Renaissance under the

leadership of Queen Elizabeth I.

Elizabeth and playwrights dominated the

scene, creating written words that were

poetic in language and poignant in

meeting. They've even written plays

about people we've already talked about.

William Shakespeare wrote many plays

including histories. Julius Caesar which

was about the assassination of Julius

Caesar, King John which was about the

Hundred Years War and Henry VIIIth was a

play about showing human needs to gain

power. Other notable playwrights who

filled the scene were Christopher Marlo,

Ben Johnson and John

Webster. While on the other side of the

world, the English colony of Jamestown

was forming in Virginia under the

Virginia Trading Company. Slightly up

north, Samuel de Champlain was

establishing the French colony of Quebec

[Music]

Canada. While back in the old world,

they were having a new era of fighting,

the 30 Years War. This time it was

between the Protestants and the

Catholics. It began in 1618 when the

Holy Roman Emperor attempted to impose

Catholicism on the Protestant population

of Bohemia. The Bohemians rebelled and

soon the conflict spread throughout the

region. Over the next 30 years, armies

marched and counter marched across

Europe, leaving a trail of destruction

and devastation. The war was

characterized by brutal sieges, bloody

battles, and atrocities committed by

both sides. At its height, the war

involved most of the major powers of

Europe, including France, Spain, Sweden,

and the Holy Roman Empire. It was fought

along religious, political, and economic

lines, with each side vying for

dominance and control. The war finally

ended in 1648 with the signing of the

peace of West Failia. The treaty

recognized the Dutch Republic's

independence, established the individual

state sovereignty within the Holy Roman

Empire, and ended the religious

conflicts that fueled the

[Music]

war. While in China, the Ming court was

plagued by corruption, factionalism, and

economic decline. The emperor at the

time, Chongzen, faced mounting pressure

from his advisers to strengthen the

military and defend against the Manchu

threat. However, his efforts were

hindered by infighting among officials

and a lack of resources. In 1644, the

Manchu army led by Prince Dorgon

launched a massive invasion of China.

The Ming army, weakened by years of

neglect and corruption, was no match for

the highly disciplined and skilled

Manchu forces. The Manchus quickly

conquered Beijing and installed their

puppet emperor, ending the Ming dynasty,

continuing the cycle of dynasties in

China. While in Spain, King Charles II

died without having any heirs, creating

a real political crisis of who should be

the leader. King Louis I 14th of France

supported his grandson Philillip as the

rightful heir to the Spanish throne

hoping to secure French influence over

Spain and its territories. On the other

hand, Emperor Liupold I of Austria

supported the candidacy of Archduke

Charles, a member of the Habsburg

dynasty who was seen as a potential ally

against French expansionism. The

conflict soon escalated into a major war

with many European powers taking sides

and forming alliances. The principal

belligerent were France and Spain

against a coalition of Austria, Great

Britain, the Dutch Republic, Portugal,

and several other minor powers. The war

ended with the treaty of Utrect in

1713 which recognized Philip as king of

Spain but required him to renounce any

claims to the French throne and seed

some territories to Great Britain and

Austria. The Treaty of Rastat signed the

following year officially ended the

[Music]

war. In 1707, the acts of the union were

passed by the parliaments of England and

Scotland, which united the two kingdoms

into a single political entity known as

Great Britain, hence creating the legal

foothold that is Great Britain. However,

Scotland took a disliking to this. There

were protests and uprisings in the years

following the Union, including the

Jacobite risings of 1715 and

1745, which aimed to restore the

Scottish monarchy and independence.

[Music]

Then on July 4th,

1776, a group of American patriots stood

in a room in Philadelphia signing a

document that would say the words, "We

hold these truths to be self-evident,

that all men are created equal, that

they are endowed by their creator with

certain unalienable rights, that among

these are life, liberty, and the pursuit

of happiness. War in the Americas was

on.

But back in Europe, the tone was quite

different. Adam Smith published the

famous book, The Wealth of Nations: The

Foundations of Lz's Fair Economics,

which essentially says the market would

balance itself out over time. In

Austria, Mosart was performing his

magnumopus, the Hafner Serenade.

Mosart's Hafner Serenade is a charming

and elegant work featuring courtly dance

music and light lyrical melodies. Its

graceful melodies, subtle harmonies, and

elegant instrumental writing

characterize

[Music]

it. As the war continued, King George

III sent his armies of the masses over

to America. Though the colonists had

little military training, their

knowledge of the terrain and guerilla

tactics made them nearly invisible. At

the same time, the Red Army coats were

easy to see for the Americans. In the

summer of 1781, George Washington and

French General Rosh Shambo marched their

forces south to Virginia, where they

laid siege to Cornwallis and his army at

Yorktown. The British were trapped and

could not escape by land or sea. The

siege dragged on for weeks. The American

and French forces bombarded the British

with artillery. They dug trenches to

inch their way closer to the British

defensive, the French Navy defeated the

British Navy in a crucial naval battle

off the coast of Virginia. Cutting off

Cornwallis's only escape route by sea.

On October 14th, 1781, the American and

French forces launched a massive assault

on the British defenses. The British

fought valiantly, but were vastly

outnumbered and outgunned, and they soon

began to falter. On October 19th,

Cornwallis surrendered his army to

Washington, effectively ending the war.

The victory at Yorktown was a decisive

moment in the war, and it marked the end

of British rule in America and the

beginning of a new

[Music]

experiment. With America finally being

free from the totally tyrannical grips

of Britain, they had one issue. How were

they going to lead? Were they going to

make General George Washington their

monarch? Therefore, democracy was

chosen. However, Plato made a good point

many years ago that the common man was

incapable and not wise enough to pick a

better leader to lead them to success.

So the American founded constitutional

convention came up with this idea of the

electoral college where the common man

would vote for a particular person who

would then have a say in who could be

president. So instead of the president

being directly voted on by the people,

they would vote on elites who would then

vote for the president directly.

The French then noticed how well the

American Revolution went. At the time,

the French were ruled by King Louis V

16th and his wife, Queen Marie

Antuinette. As Queen Marie Antwanette

told the peasants, "Let them eat cake."

The people of France got together. They

decided they wanted more say in how the

country was run. and they formed a group

called the National Assembly and started

making new laws to give them more

rights. One of the most famous events of

the French Revolution was the storming

of the Bastile. This was a prison that

represented the king's power and the

people wanted to show that they were not

afraid of him. They broke into the

prison and freed the prisoners which

started a revolution throughout France.

Many influential people lost their heads

during the revolution, including King

Louis V 16th and his wife, Queen Marie

Antuinette. The people were tired of

being ruled by a king and queen who

didn't care about them, and they wanted

to create a new system where everyone

would have a say, and the people of

France voted in Maximleian Robes Pierre.

In 1789, Rose Pierre was elected as a

delegate to the estates general, which

was convened to address France's

financial crisis. He quickly emerged as

a leading voice in the National

Assembly, advocating for the ordinary

people's rights and opposing the

aristocracy's power. As the revolution

continued though, Robes Pierre became

increasingly radical in his views.

Advocating for the execution of King

Louis V 16th and the establishment of a

republic, he was elected to the powerful

committee of public safety in

1793. Tasked with protecting the

revolution and rooting out enemies of

the state. Under Robes Pierre's

leadership, the committee launched a

period of intense repression known as

the reign of terror. Thousands of people

were arrested, tried, and executed for

crimes against the revolution. Robes

Pierre became known as a ruthless and

uncompromising figure. However, Robes

Pierre's power began to wne as the

people grew tired of the violence and

the instability of the revolution. In

1794, he was arrested and imprisoned

along with his closest allies. On July

28th,

1794, Robespierre was taken to the

guillotine and

executed. The execution marked the end

of the reign of terror and democracy for

now in France. Instead, they moved to a

directory. A directory is a government

led by a five member executive council

known as the directory which was chosen

by the council of elders. This

legislative body was also part of the

new government. The directory was meant

to serve as a moderating force balancing

the interests of the various factions

that had emerged during the

revolution. However, the directory

concept wasn't successful as well. So,

General Napoleon Bonapart decided to

overthrow the government and begin his

conquests to take over the

world. So, off Napoleon went to conquer

much of Europe. In 1805, Napoleon

defeated a combined Austro-Russian army

at the Battle of Ostlitz, solidifying

his position as one of Europe's most

powerful leaders. He then conquered much

of the continent, including Spain,

Portugal, and the Netherlands. In 1812,

Napoleon invaded Russia with a massive

army. Still, the campaign proved

disastrous and his forces were decimated

by the harsh Russian winter. The defeat

marked the beginning of Napoleon's

downfall. In 1814, the European powers

allied against Napoleon and invaded

France, forcing him to abdicate his

throne and go into exile on the island

of Elba. However, he returned to France

in 1815 in what became known as the 100

days and briefly regained power before

being defeated by the British and

Prussian armies at the Battle of

Waterlue. While back in the Americas,

Simone Bolivar was on his military

campaigns to free Latin American

countries from the grasp of the Spanish

colonial rule. Believar began his

military campaigns in Venezuela in 1810

where he led a successful uprising

against the Spanish colonial

authorities. He then moved on to

Colombia where he won a series of

important victories against the Spanish

including the battle of Boyaka in 1819

which secured the independence of

Colombia. Bolavar then turned his

attention to Ecuador and Peru where he

won a series of decisive battles that

helped secure both countries

independence. He captured the city of

Lima in

1824 effectively ending Spanish control

of Peru. Bolivar's final military

campaign was in Bolivia where he led the

fight for independence against the

Spanish in 1825. Bolivia was named in

honor of Bolivar who played a critical

role in its

[Music]

liberation. In 1848, two men had an idea

that would spark debate worldwide. Karl

Marx and Frederick Engles wrote the book

called the Communist Manifesto which is

a book about the idea of communism where

instead of a capitalistic system where

the nobles or bgeoa own everything and

the workers and proletariats work for

slave wages instead what if the

proletariats own the means of production

and all work together as Markx and

Engles would write let the ruling

classes tremble at a communistic

revolution

The proletarians would have nothing to

lose but their chains and they have and

they'd to win. They would also write the

need for a constantly expanding market

for its products chases the bourgeoisi

over the whole surface of the globe. It

must nestle everywhere, settle

everywhere, establish connections

everywhere. Right after the writing of

the Communist Manifesto began a period

in Europe known as the scramble for

Africa, it all began in the 1870s when

European countries began to explore the

interior of Africa, looking for new

territories to claim and resources to

exploit. At first, the European powers

were cautious, sending explorers and

missionaries into Africa to establish

trade networks and alliances with local

leaders. However, as competition

increased, the European powers became

more aggressive in their tactics. They

used military force to establish

colonies and protectorates, and they

engaged in diplomatic maneuvering and

propaganda campaigns to gain the support

of local populations. One of the most

ruthless tactics the European powers

used was dividing Africa into artificial

borders and creating new ethnic and

linguistic divisions. This created

tensions and conflicts between different

African groups which the Europeans used

to their advantage creating a European

stronghold over the continent of Africa

to increase their profits. The scramble

for Africa came to an end as a result of

several factors including changing

international politics, economic

realities, and rising African

nationalism. One of the key factors that

contributed to the end of the scramble

for Africa was the changing balance of

power in Europe. By the early 20th

century, European powers were

increasingly focused on competition with

each other, particularly in Europe

itself and were less interested in

acquiring new colonies in Africa. This

was due in part to the growing tensions

between European powers that would

eventually lead to the outbreak of World

War I in

1914. Because on June 28th, 1914, a shot

was heard around the world with the

assassination of Archduke France

Ferdinand. France Ferdinand was the heir

to the throne of Austria Hungary and his

assassination by a Serbian nationalist

named Gabrielo Princip sparked a

diplomatic crisis that quickly escalated

into a global conflict. In the aftermath

of the assassination, AustriaHungary

declared war on Serbia, triggering a

complex web of alliances and treaties

that drew other countries into the

conflict. Germany, an ally of

AustriaHungary, declared war on Russia

and France, while Great Britain, which

had a treaty with Belgium, declared war

on Germany. Within weeks, most of Europe

was embroiled in a brutal and

devastating conflict. In November 1918,

after four years of brutal fighting, the

Allied powers and the central powers

agreed to an armistice, effectively

bringing an end to the war and the

demise of the Ottoman Empire. On

November 11th, the armistice went into

effect and the guns fell silent across

Europe.

World War II. The peace was short-lived

because a man named Adolf Hitler invaded

Poland. Like Alexander the Great, Julius

Caesar, Trejan, Attilla the Hun,

Genghask Khan, Napoleon Bonapart, and

Sullean the Great, Adolf Hitler wanted

to establish an empire for his nation

and his people. Adolf had dreams of

building an empire larger than anything

that was ever created. He wanted to make

the Roman Empire look like nothing.

However, for the sake of the world and

especially those Hitler viewed as

undesirable vermin. In April

1945, Soviet forces began a massive

assault on Berlin. After weeks of

intense fighting, the city fell on May

2nd and German forces surrendered.

Meanwhile, Allied forces were closing in

from the west. And on May 7th, Germany

signed an unconditional surrender,

officially ending the war in Europe. A

few months later, after the bombings of

Nagasaki and Hiroshima, Japan

surrendered as well, leaving the war to

be over.

[Music]

From World War II on, the world has

faced a technological revolution. With

Alan Turing's invention of the computer

during the war, the world became global.

For 50 years, America and the Soviet

Union were at war. despite the fact that

they were on two totally different

continents. In 1969, Neil Armstrong

landed on the moon, saying, "That's one

small step for

man, one giant leap for mankind."

As the years on the world has become

increasingly smaller, computers have

become more affordable. Cell phones

changed the way we communicated with one

another. Let's go back to the story of a

man named Gilgamesh on his quest for

immortality. At the end of the poem,

Gilgamesh realizes life which you look

for, you will never find. For when gods

created man, they let death be his share

and life withheld in their own hands.

The history of human civilizations is an

incomplete book, constantly being

updated. Some things will never change.

However, humans will always die. Empires

will always rise and fall. The masses

will always clamor towards safety.

The ENTIRE History of Human Civilizations | Ancient to Modern (4K Documentary) [Full Movie]

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